What strategies did African leaders use to oppose colonial policies?

African leaders used strategies such as peaceful protests, armed resistance, political negotiations, and alliances to oppose colonial policies.

African leaders employed a variety of strategies to resist colonial rule, reflecting the diversity of experiences across the continent. One of the most common methods was peaceful protest. This often took the form of strikes, boycotts, and civil disobedience. For example, in the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), Kwame Nkrumah led a series of strikes and boycotts in the late 1940s and early 1950s that eventually led to the country's independence. Similarly, in South Africa, the African National Congress (ANC) organised the Defiance Campaign in 1952, which involved widespread civil disobedience against apartheid laws.

Armed resistance was another strategy used by African leaders. This was particularly common in the early stages of colonial rule, when traditional leaders sought to defend their territories against European invaders. In Ethiopia, Emperor Menelik II successfully resisted Italian colonisation in the Battle of Adwa in 1896. In the later stages of colonial rule, armed resistance often took the form of guerrilla warfare. For example, in Algeria, the National Liberation Front (FLN) waged a bloody war of independence against French rule from 1954 to 1962.

Political negotiations were also a key strategy. African leaders often sought to negotiate with colonial powers for greater autonomy or independence. This was particularly effective in the post-World War II period, when European powers were weakened and more willing to grant concessions. For instance, Jomo Kenyatta, the leader of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), successfully negotiated Kenya's independence from Britain in 1963.

Finally, African leaders often formed alliances to strengthen their resistance against colonial rule. These alliances could be with other African leaders, with international organisations, or with foreign powers. For example, during the Suez Crisis in 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser received support from other African and Asian countries, as well as the Soviet Union, in his opposition to British and French control of the Suez Canal. These alliances not only provided material support, but also helped to legitimise and internationalise the African struggle against colonialism.