Motor learning processes

· Motor learning = a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience.
· Performance = a temporary occurrence that can fluctuate over time due to fatigue, motivation, arousal, environment or pressure.
· Exam focus: do not confuse learning with performance; improved performance in one session does not always prove long-term learning.
· Motor learning explains how skills are acquired, practised and perfected through interaction between the learner, task and environment.
· IB expects comparison of information processing / linear models with ecological / non-linear models.

Information processing model and schema theory

· Information processing model = the brain processes information in stages: input → decision-making → output → feedback.
· Typical sport sequence: stimulus identification → response selection → response programming → movement response.
· Best applied to skills where the performer must detect cues, choose a response and execute a motor programme, e.g. goalkeeper reacting to a penalty.
· Schema theory = skills are controlled using generalized rules from past experience, not a separate memory for every movement.
· Generalized motor patterns/programmes = stored movement patterns that can be adapted by changing parameters such as force, speed, timing and amplitude.
· Subordinate motor patterns = smaller, specific variations of the generalized pattern, e.g. different tennis serves within the same serving action.
· Recall schema helps select and produce the movement; recognition schema helps evaluate whether the movement felt or looked correct.
· Coaching implication: use varied practice so learners build flexible schemas that transfer to new situations.

Ecological model and non-linear pedagogy

· Ecological model = movement emerges from interaction between the performer, environment and task, rather than being fully pre-planned in the brain.
· Ecological dynamics theory focuses on how learners perceive opportunities for action and adapt movement in real time.
· Non-linear pedagogy = learning does not always progress in a fixed, predictable order; small changes in constraints can cause large changes in performance.
· Performance variability is not always “error”; it can be useful exploration that helps the learner discover effective movement solutions.
· Degrees of freedom = the many possible ways joints, muscles and body segments can move; learning involves controlling or coordinating these possibilities.
· Perception–action coupling = the performer’s perception of information is directly linked to the movement they choose, e.g. reading a defender’s body position before dribbling.
· Self-organization = effective movement patterns emerge naturally without constant direct instruction.
· Coaching implication: design practice environments that encourage learners to explore, adapt and solve movement problems.

This image supports the ecological view of motor learning by showing that movement solutions emerge from interacting constraints. It is useful for explaining why coaches manipulate practice conditions rather than simply prescribing one ideal technique. Source

Constraints-led approach to skills acquisition

· Constraints-led approach = a practical coaching method where the coach manipulates constraints to guide learning.
· Task constraints = rules, equipment, playing area, scoring system, number of players, time limits or target size.
· Environmental constraints = weather, surface, light, noise, altitude, crowd pressure or space.
· Individual / performer constraints = height, strength, fitness, motivation, confidence, prior experience, injury status or limb dominance.
· Example: to improve passing accuracy, reduce target size, alter distance, change defender pressure or limit touches.
· Example: to support beginners, use lighter equipment, smaller spaces, slower opponents or simplified rules.
· Strong exam answers should explain what constraint is changed, why it changes the learner’s behaviour and how it improves skill acquisition.
· Link to injury/biomechanics: manipulating constraints can help identify and correct biomechanical maladaptation.

Linear pedagogy: open-loop and closed-loop theory

· Traditional linear pedagogy assumes learning progresses in ordered stages and often uses direct instruction, repetition and correction of errors.
· Open-loop control = movement is pre-programmed and executed without using feedback during the action.
· Open-loop control suits fast, ballistic skills where there is no time to adjust, e.g. golf swing, sprint start, tennis serve.
· Closed-loop control = movement is adjusted using feedback during performance.
· Closed-loop control suits slower or continuous skills, e.g. balancing, cycling, swimming technique correction.
· Feedback can be intrinsic, such as kinaesthetic feel, or extrinsic, such as coach comments, video or results.
· Exam comparison: open-loop = quick but less adjustable; closed-loop = slower but allows correction.

Phases of learning: cognitive, associative, autonomous

· Cognitive phase = beginner stage; learner tries to understand what to do.
· Cognitive phase features: many errors, inconsistent performance, high attention demands and need for clear instructions/demonstrations.
· Coaching in cognitive phase: use simple cues, demonstrations, basic feedback and safe, low-pressure practice.
· Associative phase = practice/refinement stage; learner understands the skill and begins to improve consistency.
· Associative phase features: fewer errors, better timing, improved feedback use and more stable movement patterns.
· Coaching in associative phase: give more specific feedback, vary practice and encourage error detection.
· Autonomous phase = advanced stage; skill becomes automatic with low conscious attention.
· Autonomous phase features: high consistency, rapid decisions, focus can shift to tactics, opponents and pressure management.
· Coaching in autonomous phase: use game-like pressure, decision-making, deception, tactical variation and fine performance analysis.

This diagram summarizes how learners move from high conscious control to more automatic performance with practice. It is especially useful for comparing the attentional demands of each learning phase. Source

Psychological refractory period (PRP)

· Psychological refractory period = the delay in responding to a second stimulus because the first stimulus is still being processed.
· PRP occurs when two stimuli are presented close together; response to the second stimulus is significantly slowed.
· Sport application: performers use deception to overload an opponent’s response processing.
· Example: a rugby player sells a dummy pass; the defender reacts to the first fake stimulus, so response to the true movement is delayed.
· Example: a basketball player uses a shot fake before driving; the defender’s second response is slower because the first response is still being processed.
· Strong exam phrasing: deception exploits a central processing bottleneck, creating a time delay between the second stimulus and the correct response.
· Coaching implication: train performers to use deception and train defenders to delay commitment and pick up reliable cues.

This figure shows why response to a second stimulus is slower when it follows closely after a first stimulus. It provides a clear visual explanation of the processing delay that makes deception effective in sport. Source

Transfer of learning

· Transfer of learning = the influence of previous experience in one skill or context on learning or performing a new skill.
· Positive transfer = previous learning helps the new skill, e.g. tennis serve helps overhead volleyball serve.
· Negative transfer = previous learning interferes with the new skill, e.g. an old technique conflicts with a new grip or movement pattern.
· Zero transfer = previous experience has little or no effect.
· IB types of transfer include skill to skill, practice to performance, abilities to skills, bilateral, stage to stage and principles to skills.
· Skill to skill = one learned skill affects another, e.g. throwing helps javelin.
· Practice to performance = training conditions affect competitive performance; best when practice is representative of the game.
· Abilities to skills = underlying abilities such as balance, reaction time or coordination support learning specific skills.
· Bilateral transfer = learning transfers from one side of the body to the other, e.g. right-foot kicking practice helps left-foot kicking.
· Stage to stage = learning in one phase supports progress to the next phase.
· Principles to skills = understanding a concept supports execution, e.g. knowing follow-through improves throwing accuracy.

Exam comparison: linear vs non-linear approaches

· Linear / information processing approach: emphasizes stored programmes, stages, repetition, feedback and progression from cognitive → associative → autonomous.
· Non-linear / ecological approach: emphasizes constraints, variability, exploration, self-organization and perception–action coupling.
· Linear approach is useful for explaining decision-making stages, motor programmes, schema theory and PRP.
· Non-linear approach is useful for explaining adaptability, game realism, individual differences and why there may be more than one effective technique.
· Best exam answers avoid saying one model is always better; instead, match the model to the skill, learner, environment and practice goal.

High-scoring exam tips

· Always use exact IB terms: performance variability, degrees of freedom, perception–action coupling, self-organization, constraints-led approach, schema theory and psychological refractory period.
· For application questions, name the sport skill first, then link the theory to what the performer or coach does.
· For PRP questions, include the sequence: first stimulus → processing delay → second stimulus → slower response.
· For coaching questions, explain the practical implication, not just the definition.
· For transfer questions, state whether transfer is positive, negative or zero, then explain why.
· For compare/evaluate questions, include both sides: **linear models help explain decision-making and motor