OCR Specification focus:
‘Henry VII and Etaples (1492); Henry VIII’s invasions; the French threat under Somerset and loss of Calais (1558).’
Tudor monarchs employed shifting strategies towards France, balancing ambition with financial reality. From Henry VII’s pragmatic settlement at Etaples, through Henry VIII’s costly invasions, to Somerset’s military failings, France remained England’s enduring preoccupation.
Henry VII and the Treaty of Etaples (1492)
Henry VII’s foreign policy was guided by financial caution and the need to consolidate his fragile dynasty after 1485. His intervention in France culminated in the Treaty of Etaples (1492).
Context:
France’s expansionist aims threatened Brittany, a traditional ally.
Henry’s invasion of France was carefully timed to pressure Charles VIII, not to pursue conquest.
Settlement:
The French agreed to pension payments of £159,000 spread over years.
Charles VIII promised not to support Yorkist pretenders, particularly Perkin Warbeck.
Significance:
Henry VII gained both security and financial stability without overcommitting militarily.
The treaty represented a defensive and pragmatic approach rather than imperial ambition.
Treaty of Etaples (1492): Agreement between Henry VII and Charles VIII of France, ending English involvement in France in return for money and security guarantees.
This pragmatic diplomacy laid the foundations of Tudor dealings with France, contrasting with Henry VIII’s later pursuit of glory.
Henry VIII’s Invasions of France
Unlike his father, Henry VIII was inspired by chivalric ideals and the Renaissance concept of kingship, seeking to emulate medieval warrior monarchs.
Early Campaigns
In 1512 and 1513, Henry sought continental prestige.
The Battle of the Spurs (1513), though militarily minor, was presented as a significant victory.
Flemish School, The Battle of the Spurs, depicts the French cavalry’s hurried retreat outside Thérouanne and the associated English-Imperial operations. The background shows the sieges of Tournai and Thérouanne, linking image and campaign narrative. As an artistic commemoration, it stylises events while remaining a useful overview of the 1513 offensive. Source
England briefly held Tournai and Thérouanne, but at immense cost.
Motives
Personal glory and desire to be seen as a new Henry V.
Alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire against France in the shifting European balance.
Religious and dynastic rivalry, framed by the competing claims to territory.
Outcomes
Gains were diplomatically negligible and financially unsustainable.
English troops were reliant on foreign allies, who often pursued their own priorities.
The return of Tournai in 1518 under the Treaty of London reflected the limits of English ambition.
Renewed Invasions
In the 1540s, Henry VIII again turned to France.
The capture of Boulogne (1544) represented his last significant military achievement.
James Basire’s eighteenth-century engraving after a sixteenth-century original shows English forces besieging Boulogne in 1544, with siege lines and guns oriented toward the fortified town. While produced later, it closely follows the lost Cowdray painting and remains a valuable visual for the campaign’s scale and tactics. Extra pictorial detail extends beyond the notes but illustrates siege practice of the period. Source
Yet the campaign drained resources, forcing the debasement of coinage and heavy taxation at home.
The invasions revealed the tension between prestige abroad and stability at home.
The French Threat under Somerset
When Edward VI succeeded in 1547, foreign policy fell under the leadership of Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, acting as Lord Protector. His policy towards France was shaped by overlapping Scottish and French concerns.
Anglo-Scottish-French Context
France was the traditional ally of Scotland in the Auld Alliance.
English intervention in Scotland, especially the policy of ‘rough wooing’ aimed at marrying Edward VI to Mary, Queen of Scots, provoked French hostility.
The French garrisoned Scottish fortresses and reinforced their influence.
Somerset’s Failings
The focus on Scotland, especially the costly Battle of Pinkie Cleugh (1547), distracted resources from the French front.
French intervention threatened English control of Boulogne and other territories.
The Treaty of Boulogne (1550) under Somerset’s successor, Northumberland, resulted in England’s withdrawal from Boulogne in exchange for financial compensation.
Auld Alliance: Long-standing agreement between Scotland and France, directed against England, involving mutual military support and shared hostility.
Somerset’s inability to manage the combined Scottish and French threat exposed the limits of English power in continental affairs.
The Loss of Calais (1558)
Calais had been under English control since 1347, symbolising England’s medieval continental ambitions.
Map of the Pale of Calais showing the English enclave and neighbouring ports, including Calais and Boulogne. Although labelled for c.1360 and in French, the spatial extent remained broadly relevant until Calais fell in 1558. Labels are in French; locations align with modern Pas-de-Calais. Source
Its loss in 1558 during Mary I’s reign was a decisive moment.
Background:
England was drawn into war with France through Mary’s marriage to Philip II of Spain.
France exploited English military weakness and swiftly seized Calais.
Impact:
The loss ended the last remnant of the medieval claim to French lands.
It was a psychological and political blow, undermining Mary’s authority.
Strategically, England no longer had a foothold on the continent.
Calais: The last English possession in France, lost in 1558; its loss marked the end of medieval continental ambitions.
Though not directly linked to Somerset, the long-term weaknesses of English involvement in France—financial strain, military overstretch, and reliance on alliances—were revealed starkly.
Comparative Overview
The subsubtopic demonstrates the contrast between monarchs:
Henry VII: cautious, financially motivated, seeking security through treaties like Etaples.
Henry VIII: aggressive, glory-seeking, pursuing expensive and temporary conquests.
Somerset: defensive, reactive, overwhelmed by combined French and Scottish pressure.
Mary I: the final humiliation with the loss of Calais in 1558.
Key Themes
Continuity: France remained the central concern of Tudor foreign policy.
Change: Methods shifted between diplomacy (Etaples), invasion (Henry VIII), and defensive struggles (Somerset, Mary).
Consequences: English prestige fluctuated, but financial and military overstretch repeatedly constrained long-term success.
FAQ
Henry VII invaded late in the campaigning season, ensuring minimal risk of drawn-out conflict. His purpose was to pressure Charles VIII, distracted by ambitions in Italy, into negotiation rather than outright conquest.
This strategy maximised diplomatic leverage while maintaining Henry’s image as a monarch capable of military action, without undermining his financial caution or dynastic security.
Although the clash was minor, English propaganda framed it as a decisive victory.
The name “Battle of the Spurs” emphasised the French cavalry fleeing hastily.
Celebrations in England exaggerated Henry’s personal role.
Chroniclers highlighted it as proof of Henry’s ability to emulate Henry V.
This spin concealed the limited territorial gains and reinforced Henry’s desired warrior image.
The cost of sustaining war strained England’s economy.
Boulogne’s garrison was expensive to maintain.
Revenue from taxation and forced loans caused discontent.
Coinage was debased, leading to inflation and loss of confidence in currency.
These financial burdens revealed the tension between foreign ambition and domestic stability.
Somerset prioritised Scotland, committing resources to the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh (1547) and fortification projects.
This left Boulogne undermanned and vulnerable to French attack. The French also exploited the Auld Alliance, reinforcing Scotland militarily and diplomatically.
Somerset’s dual-front strategy stretched England’s resources, weakening its continental position.
Calais represented England’s last continental stronghold and a symbolic reminder of medieval claims in France.
Its fall undermined Mary I’s authority, already unpopular due to her Spanish marriage and religious policies.
Politically, the loss signalled the end of England’s traditional role as a continental power, shifting future policy towards maritime and colonial ambitions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Henry VII conclude the Treaty of Etaples with France, and what did Charles VIII promise as part of the agreement?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year: 1492.
1 mark for stating Charles VIII’s promise: e.g. not to support Yorkist pretenders (accept “not to support Perkin Warbeck” or “not to support Henry VII’s enemies”).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Henry VIII’s invasions of France did not bring lasting success.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks.
1–2 marks: Simple description (e.g. Henry VIII invaded France but had to give back territory; he gained little).
3–4 marks: Some explanation of reasons, such as:
High financial costs and unsustainable expenditure.
Reliance on allies (Spain, Holy Roman Empire) who often abandoned England’s aims.
Military gains like Tournai, Thérouanne, and Boulogne were temporary or diplomatically reversed.
5–6 marks: Developed explanation with range and depth, making clear links between causes and outcomes:
Henry’s pursuit of personal glory and chivalric ideals conflicted with England’s limited resources.
Campaigns led to coinage debasement and heavy taxation, undermining stability at home.
Overall, conquests were symbolic victories rather than lasting strategic successes.
