OCR Specification focus:
‘Relations with France and Spain explain why England went to war with France in 1557.’
Introduction
In 1557, England entered war with France, shaped by entangled Anglo-French-Spanish relations, Mary I’s marriage to Philip II, and shifting European power struggles.
The European Context of 1557
The mid-sixteenth century was dominated by the rivalry between Habsburg Spain and Valois France. Both monarchies competed for dominance across Europe, particularly in Italy and the Low Countries. England, though militarily weaker, was strategically positioned to influence outcomes by lending support to one side.
A clear map of Charles V’s Habsburg territories, including Spain and the Seventeen Provinces, which passed to Philip II by 1556. The colour key distinguishes inherited vs. later-acquired lands, illustrating Habsburg reach around France. This geopolitical context underpinned England’s 1557 alignment with Spain. Source
Anglo-Spanish Alignment
The marriage of Mary I and Philip II in 1554 bound England diplomatically to Spain.
Obverse of a 1554 shilling showing Mary I and Philip II facing each other, issued after their marriage. Coins like this publicised the political union that aligned England with Habsburg strategy against France. High-resolution detail aids discussion of symbolism and titulature on Tudor coinage. Source
England’s foreign policy interests became increasingly intertwined with Spanish dynastic and strategic priorities.
Philip pressed Mary to involve England in Spain’s conflict with France, seeing her kingdom as a valuable ally.
French Hostility
France supported Mary, Queen of Scots, and her marriage to the Dauphin of France, raising dynastic and confessional anxieties for Mary I of England.
France remained a traditional rival to England, especially over territorial claims like Calais, England’s last continental possession.
Anglo-French Relations before 1557
England and France had a long-standing antagonism rooted in territorial disputes and historic enmities.
France’s Catholic monarch, Henry II, posed both a military and ideological challenge to Mary I’s regime.
English concerns grew over French influence in Scotland, a potential launch point for intervention in England.
Religious Dimension
Mary I’s Catholic restoration aligned her more naturally with Philip II and Spain.
France’s Catholicism might have suggested common ground, but dynastic and political rivalry overrode shared religion.
Instead, Mary’s England saw France as a threat to Catholic Europe’s balance, particularly given French ambitions in Italy and the Netherlands.
The Road to War in 1557
The decision for England to join Spain against France in 1557 did not come immediately but was the result of escalating pressures.
Spanish Influence
Philip II actively lobbied Mary for English intervention, warning that French dominance would endanger both Spain and England.
England was drawn into wider Habsburg-Valois conflicts, known as the Italian Wars.
French Provocations
In early 1557, Thomas Stafford’s invasion of Scarborough was launched with French backing, directly threatening English security.
This incident reinforced the perception of France as an aggressive adversary.
Faction and Counsel
Within Mary’s court, there was debate about whether to commit to war.
Some councillors argued that England’s financial weakness made war unsustainable.
However, loyalty to Philip and fear of French hostility persuaded Mary’s regime that intervention was unavoidable.
War with France in 1557
England declared war on France in June 1557, aligning formally with Spain.
Key Developments
English forces joined Spain in the Battle of St. Quentin (1557), a significant victory against France.
England’s military commitment was relatively small compared to Spain’s, but the symbolic value was considerable.
English morale was briefly boosted by participation in a major continental victory.
Consequences for Anglo-French Relations
War intensified the long-standing Anglo-French rivalry, placing Calais at greater risk.
France retaliated by targeting English possessions, foreshadowing the loss of Calais in 1558.
Anglo-Spanish Relations in the War
Mary I’s decision to support Spain strengthened Anglo-Spanish ties but came at high cost.
Benefits to Spain
England’s involvement allowed Spain to bolster its armies without bearing the full diplomatic and military burden alone.
Philip II utilised England as a secondary front in the war against France.
Costs to England
War expenditures strained England’s finances, adding to domestic discontent.
The loss of Calais in 1558 was a direct consequence of England’s alignment with Spain against France.
Mary’s reputation suffered, with critics blaming her Spanish marriage for dragging England into a conflict that damaged its interests.
Dynastic and Political Implications
The war of 1557 reveals how dynastic alliances could shape foreign policy outcomes.
The Spanish Marriage
Spanish Marriage: The union of Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain (1554), which created a dynastic and diplomatic alliance binding England’s fortunes to Habsburg Spain.
Mary’s loyalty to her husband influenced her decision-making, illustrating the risks of dynastic diplomacy.
Domestic Politics
Opposition figures used the war to criticise Mary’s government.
The perception that England had become a subordinate partner to Spain undermined national confidence.
Strategic Considerations
Importance of Calais
Calais was England’s last continental outpost, crucial for trade and security.
Its vulnerability increased once England joined Spain’s conflict, making it a prime French target.
England’s Military Position
England lacked the resources for prolonged continental campaigning.
Reliance on Spanish leadership meant England had little strategic autonomy.
The 1557 Conflict
Although the immediate outcome of the 1557 campaign was positive for England, the long-term consequences were disastrous.
Anglo-French relations reached new hostility, culminating in the loss of Calais.
Anglo-Spanish relations deepened, but at the expense of English independence in foreign policy.
The war of 1557 exemplifies how foreign alliances, dynastic commitments, and strategic insecurities combined to draw England into costly continental conflicts.
FAQ
Thomas Stafford, a Protestant exile, landed at Scarborough in April 1557 with a small force, backed by French support.
Although the rebellion itself was quickly crushed, its significance lay in exposing France’s willingness to intervene directly in England’s internal politics. This escalated fears in Mary’s government that France posed both an external and domestic threat, tipping the balance in favour of declaring war alongside Spain.
England’s participation at St Quentin boosted its standing temporarily. Although the Spanish army led the campaign, English troops contributed to the decisive victory over France.
This involvement gave Mary I’s regime a rare chance to claim military success. However, the prestige was short-lived, as subsequent French retaliation and the eventual loss of Calais in 1558 overshadowed England’s role.
Calais had long been England’s only continental possession and was surrounded by French territory.
Its defences had been neglected, with a costly but under-resourced garrison.
Once war with France broke out, Calais became an obvious target for retaliation.
England’s dependence on Spanish-led campaigns elsewhere left the port poorly defended in strategic planning.
Opinion was divided.
Some councillors argued England’s weak finances and domestic instability made war too risky.
Others feared that refusing Philip II’s request would undermine the Spanish marriage and leave England diplomatically isolated.
Ultimately, loyalty to Mary and Philip’s dynastic alliance won out, though scepticism remained among political elites.
While Scotland was not directly involved in the 1557 conflict, Anglo-French ties mattered because of the Auld Alliance.
French pressure on England risked encouraging Scottish hostility, especially with Mary, Queen of Scots married to the French Dauphin.
Although large-scale Scottish intervention did not materialise in 1557, English strategists feared a two-front conflict, reinforcing the urgency of aligning with Spain to counter France.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why Anglo-French relations deteriorated in 1557.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified (maximum 2).
Possible answers include:French support for Thomas Stafford’s invasion of Scarborough.
France’s support for Mary, Queen of Scots, and her marriage to the Dauphin.
Long-standing rivalry over Calais and other territorial disputes.
French hostility towards Mary I’s Spanish marriage and alignment with Habsburg Spain.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why England went to war with France in 1557.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 2 marks for identifying reasons.
Award up to 2 marks for explanation of how those reasons contributed to the decision.
Award up to 2 marks for clear, developed analysis linking Anglo-French-Spanish relations to the outbreak of war.
Indicative content (not exhaustive):
The influence of Mary I’s marriage to Philip II and England’s alignment with Spanish interests.
French backing of Thomas Stafford’s Scarborough raid heightened the perception of France as a direct threat.
England’s long-standing rivalry with France, especially over Calais, created pressure to act.
Philip II encouraged Mary to declare war, framing English participation as essential to maintaining the European balance of power.
Concerns about France’s influence in Scotland and dynastic threats to Mary I’s position.
Level descriptors:
5–6 marks: Clear and developed explanation covering at least two reasons with analytical links to Anglo-French-Spanish relations.
3–4 marks: Some explanation offered, covering at least one reason with limited analysis.
1–2 marks: Simple identification of reasons with little or no explanation.
0 marks: No relevant material.
