OCR Specification focus:
‘Medieval inquisition and fears concerning Jews, Conversos and Moriscos shaped Spanish religious policy.’
The Spanish Inquisition’s medieval legacy and anxieties surrounding religious minorities shaped Philip II’s policies, forging a climate of fear, discipline, and control over Spanish Catholic society.
The Medieval Inquisition and Its Legacy
The Inquisition was a Church tribunal established in the thirteenth century to combat heresy. Its methods of investigation, interrogation, and punishment created a long-standing model for religious policing in Catholic Europe. By the time of the Spanish monarchy’s consolidation in the late fifteenth century, the Inquisition was re-purposed under royal authority, linking state power with religious conformity. This background is essential to understanding the environment inherited by Philip II in the sixteenth century.
Inquisition: An ecclesiastical tribunal established to detect and eradicate heresy, often through trials, torture, and penalties, sometimes extending to execution.
The Spanish Inquisition differed from earlier papal versions because it was directed by the crown, giving monarchs significant influence over religious and social order.
Jews and Expulsion
By the fifteenth century, Spain had a substantial Jewish community. Jews were central to trade, scholarship, and finance, but they were increasingly resented for their perceived separateness and success. Accusations of heresy and blasphemy grew alongside claims of ritual crimes, stoking fear.
In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, expelling Jews who refused baptism.
Tens of thousands converted, becoming Conversos (also known as New Christians).
Those who stayed under suspicion often faced hostility, accused of secretly practising Judaism.
Conversos: Jews who converted to Christianity, often under compulsion, in late medieval and early modern Spain. Many were accused of being false Christians.
This legacy of suspicion shaped religious fears in Philip II’s reign, as Conversos were often portrayed as a hidden threat to Catholic unity.
Conversos and Fear of Heresy
The fear that Conversos secretly maintained Jewish traditions was a central justification for the Inquisition’s continuation and expansion. The tribunal often targeted families accused of crypto-Judaism, using surveillance and denunciations to root out supposed heretics.
Conversos were sometimes accused by rivals or neighbours to settle disputes.
Trials often relied on circumstantial evidence or confessions extracted under duress.
Punishments included penance, imprisonment, property confiscation, or public execution by burning at the stake (auto-da-fé).
These practices reinforced a culture of fear, in which loyalty to Catholicism was continually tested and monitored.
Moriscos and the Problem of Islam
The conquest of Granada in 1492 brought Spain’s large Muslim population under Christian rule. Like the Jews, many Muslims converted to Christianity, becoming known as Moriscos.
Moriscos: Muslims in Spain who converted to Christianity, often by coercion, after the fall of Granada. They were frequently suspected of secretly practising Islam.
Despite conversion, Moriscos maintained aspects of Islamic language, dress, and culture, leading to accusations of insincerity. They were viewed as a potential fifth column, especially during times of war with the Ottoman Empire or North African states.
Inquisition investigations extended to Moriscos accused of Islamic practices, such as dietary habits or circumcision.
Resentment and discrimination created social and political tensions.
Rebellions, such as the Alpujarras Revolt (1568–1571), reinforced fears of Morisco disloyalty.
A labelled map of the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571) in the Kingdom of Granada. It locates the mountainous theatre of conflict that informed royal suspicion of Moriscos during Philip II’s reign. Labels are in Spanish; this adds geographic clarity without exceeding syllabus needs. Source
The climate of fear concerning Moriscos was not just theological but also political, bound to concerns over national security.
Philip II and the Reinforcement of Religious Fear
By the mid-sixteenth century, Philip II inherited a Spain where religious identity was inseparable from political loyalty. He reinforced the Inquisition’s authority, framing it as a defence against heresy and disunity.
The Inquisition became central to Philip’s vision of Catholic monarchy.
Heresy was not only a sin but also a crime against the state.
Religious minorities, particularly Conversos and Moriscos, became focal points of policy designed to enforce orthodoxy.
The fear of internal subversion shaped Spain’s religious climate. Orthodoxy was maintained not only by faith but also by surveillance, censorship, and punishment.
Mechanisms of Fear and Control
The Inquisition functioned as both a spiritual and political tool. Its methods ensured widespread compliance through a climate of dread.
Censorship: Books were banned, and the Index of Prohibited Books ensured control over ideas.
Public trials and executions: The auto-da-fé acted as a dramatic reminder of the costs of disobedience.
Pedro Berruguete’s Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fé (c.1495) depicts judges on a raised platform and penitents wearing sambenitos, underscoring the spectacle of public penance. Although the scene links Saint Dominic to an inquisitorial ceremony anachronistically, the composition clearly conveys how ritualised justice projected orthodoxy and deterrence. The visual details mirror features later standard in Spain’s inquisitorial culture. Source
Visitation and surveillance: Inquisitors travelled to towns to collect denunciations and enforce conformity.
Social suspicion: Families and neighbours often accused one another to display loyalty to the crown and Church.
This combination of fear, ritual, and punishment created a society where deviation was nearly impossible without detection.
The Cultural Impact of Religious Fear
Beyond legal persecution, religious fear shaped Spanish culture and society under Philip II. Suspicion of difference permeated literature, art, and popular belief, reinforcing stereotypes of Conversos and Moriscos as dangerous outsiders. The narrative of Spain as the “Most Catholic Kingdom” was cultivated by suppressing pluralism and elevating Catholic orthodoxy as the sole unifying identity.
In this way, the medieval Inquisition’s legacy combined with fears about Jews, Conversos, and Moriscos to form the backbone of Spain’s religious policy. The Spanish monarchy pursued unity through exclusion and coercion, ensuring that fear itself became a pillar of social order.
FAQ
The Spanish monarchy sought to strengthen unity by tying religious orthodoxy directly to royal authority. Unlike medieval papal inquisitions, the Spanish crown oversaw appointments of inquisitors and used the tribunal as a political as well as religious tool.
This allowed monarchs such as Ferdinand, Isabella, and later Philip II to suppress dissent, monitor minorities, and ensure loyalty without papal interference.
The Inquisition relied heavily on denunciations from ordinary people. Citizens were encouraged to report suspicious behaviour, such as dietary practices or unusual religious rituals.
Accusations often stemmed from rivalries or social disputes.
Fear of being implicated ensured widespread participation.
This fostered an atmosphere of suspicion and surveillance across society.
Pamphlets, sermons, and visual culture reinforced stereotypes of Conversos as false Christians and Moriscos as disloyal Muslims. These narratives portrayed minorities as dangerous threats to Catholic identity.
The repetition of such images and stories kept suspicion alive, ensuring the Inquisition had broad social support while discouraging tolerance or cultural pluralism.
The rebellion confirmed fears that Moriscos were a security threat. After its suppression, policies became harsher: stricter bans on Islamic customs, dispersal of Morisco populations, and greater surveillance.
The revolt strengthened arguments for eventual expulsion in the early seventeenth century, even though Philip II himself resisted immediate mass removal.
By persecuting groups heavily involved in trade, finance, and skilled crafts, Spain risked weakening vital sectors of its economy.
Confiscated property enriched the crown temporarily.
However, long-term losses included reduced productivity and fewer skilled workers.
Suspicion discouraged minorities from contributing openly to commerce, limiting Spain’s competitiveness.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the main purpose of the Spanish Inquisition during the reign of Philip II?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the Inquisition’s role in defending Catholic orthodoxy.
1 mark for noting its function in maintaining social and political control (e.g., through fear, trials, or censorship).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how fears concerning Conversos and Moriscos shaped religious policy in Spain under Philip II.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for knowledge of Conversos (converted Jews suspected of secretly practising Judaism).
Up to 2 marks for knowledge of Moriscos (converted Muslims suspected of secretly practising Islam).
1 mark for explaining how these fears led to increased use of the Inquisition and surveillance.
1 mark for linking fears of rebellion or disloyalty (e.g., Alpujarras Revolt) to policies enforcing Catholic
