OCR Specification focus:
‘After the Siege of Malta (1565) and Suleiman’s death (1566), Ottoman pressure persisted in the west.’
The period following the Siege of Malta (1565) and the death of Suleiman the Magnificent (1566) marked a critical stage in Ottoman–European relations, where pressure in the west endured despite setbacks.
The Siege of Malta (1565)
The Siege of Malta stands as one of the most dramatic confrontations between the Ottoman Empire and Christian powers in the Mediterranean.
The Ottomans sought to seize Malta, held by the Knights Hospitaller, to secure a strategic base.
Malta’s position allowed control of vital maritime routes between the western and eastern Mediterranean.
Ottoman forces under Mustafa Pasha and Piyale Pasha, supported by corsairs including Turgut Reis, launched a massive assault.
The defenders, led by Jean de Valette, Grand Master of the Order, resisted with determination. Despite the Ottomans’ use of artillery and superior numbers, the siege ultimately failed after several months of intense fighting.
Significance of the Siege
The failure at Malta represented:
A major blow to Ottoman prestige in the western Mediterranean.
Proof that Christian maritime defences could hold when coordinated.
A psychological victory for Europe, celebrated widely as divine intervention against Muslim power.
Corsairs: State-sponsored pirates and privateers, often operating from North Africa, who conducted raids and naval warfare on behalf of the Ottomans.
Despite defeat, the Ottomans retained naval superiority and sought alternative strategies for continued western expansion.
Ottoman Power at Suleiman’s Death (1566)
The death of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire’s longest-reigning and most celebrated ruler, marked a transition point. Suleiman had expanded Ottoman authority into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, combining conquest with cultural grandeur.
His death occurred during the Siege of Szigetvár in Hungary, one of his final campaigns against the Habsburgs.
Suleiman’s passing was concealed until the campaign ended to prevent demoralisation.
The Legacy of Suleiman
Suleiman’s reign symbolised the height of Ottoman power:
Centralisation of state authority and refinement of absolutism.
Expansion of Ottoman frontiers across three continents.
A strong naval presence in the Mediterranean, confronting Habsburg Spain and its allies.
His successor, Selim II, inherited a powerful yet strained empire, facing external challenges and internal pressures.
DEFINITION
Absolutism: A system of government in which the ruler holds supreme authority, unrestricted by laws or representative institutions.
This ensured the sultan’s dominance, but succession often provoked instability.
Ottoman Pressure in the West after 1565–66
Despite the Malta failure and Suleiman’s death, Ottoman influence in the west remained formidable.
Strategic Pressure Points
North Africa: Ottoman corsairs continued to harass Spanish and Italian coasts, maintaining constant pressure on Christian powers.
Eastern Mediterranean: Bases in Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete remained critical staging grounds for Ottoman naval activity.
Adriatic and Aegean Seas: Fleets threatened Venice and other maritime states dependent on trade routes.
Continuing Ambitions
Selim II and his advisers prioritised the Mediterranean:
Control of islands such as Cyprus would strengthen Ottoman dominance.
Pressure on Spain, Venice, and the Papacy kept Christian powers on alert.
Naval warfare, raids, and corsair activity persisted, maintaining momentum.
This enduring pressure reflected the Ottoman state’s ability to adapt after setbacks and pursue long-term strategies of expansion.
European Responses
The survival of Malta and Suleiman’s death emboldened Christian powers, yet fear of the Ottomans remained high.
Spain under Philip II invested heavily in Mediterranean defence and fleet expansion.
The Papal States encouraged unity among Christian states to counter renewed Ottoman offensives.
Venice, reliant on Mediterranean commerce, sought cautious diplomacy while strengthening its naval resources.
Shifting Balance of Power
The Holy League idea began to circulate, though it would only solidify later in response to renewed Ottoman threats.
Malta became a symbolic bulwark of Christendom, its resistance mythologised across Europe.
The psychological boost for Christian Europe did not reduce the material threat posed by Ottoman fleets.
The Transition from Suleiman to Selim II
Succession marked a turning point, but not an immediate decline. Selim II, sometimes labelled “Selim the Sot” due to his reputation for indulgence, nonetheless presided over significant campaigns.
Selim’s reign saw the successful conquest of Cyprus (1570–71), confirming continued western ambitions.
This expansion set the stage for the famous clash at Lepanto (1571).
Thus, the post-1565–66 period illustrates continuity of Ottoman pressure rather than collapse of western ambitions.
Holy League: A coalition of Catholic maritime states, often led by the Pope, formed to resist Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean.
Although not yet formally established, the groundwork was laid in response to the perceived Ottoman menace.
The Mediterranean in the Late 1560s
The western Mediterranean remained contested space where Ottoman pressure endured:
Coastal raids continued to terrorise Spain and Italy.
Christian shipping faced constant harassment, raising insurance and trade costs.
The balance of power depended on naval resources, alliances, and the ability to sustain long campaigns.
Factors Sustaining Ottoman Pressure
Naval dominance, despite Malta’s setback, gave mobility and strategic flexibility.
Corsair networks provided manpower and bases across North Africa.
Strategic geography of the Mediterranean islands ensured control of maritime chokepoints.
In this context, the years after Malta and Suleiman’s death did not reduce Ottoman pressure but instead foreshadowed renewed struggles that defined the later sixteenth century.
FAQ
Malta’s location between Sicily and North Africa made it a key chokepoint for controlling east–west maritime routes.
The Knights Hospitaller also harassed Ottoman shipping and corsair fleets, making them a constant irritation to Ottoman trade and naval movements.
Capturing Malta would have provided a permanent forward base for Ottoman expansion into the western Mediterranean and increased pressure on Spain and Italy.
Corsairs, often operating from North African bases like Algiers and Tunis, acted as an extension of Ottoman naval power.
They raided Spanish and Italian coasts, taking captives and plunder.
Their mobility tied down European fleets in defensive patrols.
They provided a flexible way for the Ottomans to project power without committing full-scale naval campaigns.
This ensured that Ottoman influence remained present even after major defeats.
Suleiman died during the Siege of Szigetvár. His death was concealed until the campaign concluded.
Officials spread the impression that the sultan remained alive, and orders continued to be issued in his name.
Only after victory was secured was news of his death revealed. This prevented demoralisation and potential collapse of the campaign.
Selim inherited a powerful but strained empire.
Ongoing conflicts with the Habsburgs and Venice.
The need to maintain naval dominance despite the Malta setback.
Internal pressure from court factions and reliance on advisers such as Grand Vezir Sokollu Mehmed Pasha.
His reign required balancing Ottoman prestige abroad with stability at home.
The siege’s failure was celebrated, but the Ottomans retained significant resources.
Their fleet was still the largest in the Mediterranean.
Corsair activity continued to disrupt European trade.
The conquest of Cyprus in the early 1570s demonstrated that Ottoman expansion had not ended.
This meant the siege was seen as a temporary setback rather than a permanent check on Ottoman ambitions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did the Siege of Malta take place, and who was the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller during the siege?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1565.
1 mark for correctly identifying Jean de Valette as the Grand Master.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two reasons why the failure of the Siege of Malta and the death of Suleiman in 1566 did not reduce Ottoman pressure in the western Mediterranean.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for first well-explained reason.
Example: Despite Malta’s survival, the Ottomans retained naval superiority and continued corsair raids across the western Mediterranean (1 mark for identifying naval superiority, 1 mark for linking to corsair raids, 1 mark for explaining persistence of pressure).
Up to 3 marks for second well-explained reason.
Example: Succession to Selim II did not weaken Ottoman ambitions; campaigns such as the conquest of Cyprus (1570–71) showed continued determination to dominate (1 mark for identifying Selim II, 1 mark for Cyprus campaign, 1 mark for explaining pressure maintained).
Maximum of 5 marks can be awarded.
