OCR Specification focus:
‘European alliances and rivalries with Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands shaped imperial development.’
European alliances and rivalries between 1558 and 1783 fundamentally influenced the growth of the British Empire, shaping trade, colonial expansion, military priorities, and diplomatic strategy.
Shifting Alliances in the European Context
Balance of Power Politics
The balance of power principle dominated European international relations during this period. This meant that states sought to prevent any single country, particularly Spain or France, from achieving overwhelming dominance. Britain’s imperial strategies were thus inseparable from broader European geopolitics.
Spain: Initially England’s greatest rival, especially under Philip II, due to religious differences and competing maritime ambitions.
Portugal: A vital ally at times, particularly when its dynastic ties with Spain created complex entanglements.
France: A long-term rival for dominance in both Europe and overseas territories.
The Netherlands: Both an ally and competitor; Protestant solidarity often allied them with England, but commercial rivalry caused tensions.
Religion as a Driver
Religious identity often dictated alliance patterns. Protestant England allied with other Protestant powers such as the Netherlands, while Catholic Spain and France sought to undermine England’s Protestant monarchy.
Balance of Power: A system of international relations in which states form temporary alliances to prevent any one nation from becoming too powerful.
Rivalry with Spain
Maritime Conflict
From the late sixteenth century, Spain was England’s most significant rival due to its dominance in the Americas and vast wealth from silver and gold. The rivalry reached a peak with:
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), including the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Route map of the Spanish Armada (1588) showing departure from Lisbon, Channel approach, English battles, and storm-driven retreat around the British Isles. This illustrates Anglo-Spanish rivalry’s naval dimension. Source
Competition for trade routes and colonial possessions in the Americas and the Caribbean.
Imperial Consequences
Spanish decline after the Armada created opportunities for English privateers and settlers.
Caribbean islands such as Jamaica became strategic English colonies, wrested from Spanish control.
Alliance and Rivalry with Portugal
The Iberian Union (1580–1640)
Portugal’s temporary dynastic union with Spain under Philip II weakened English access to Portuguese trade networks, particularly in Asia and Africa.
Later Relations
Following Portugal’s restoration of independence in 1640, England allied with Portugal against Spain.
The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance secured English merchants preferential access to Portuguese ports and trade in Brazil.
Marriage Alliance
The 1661 marriage between Charles II and Catherine of Braganza (a Portuguese princess) strengthened ties, bringing territories such as Bombay and Tangier into English hands.
Competition and Conflict with the Netherlands
The Anglo-Dutch Wars
Despite shared Protestantism, commercial competition caused three Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652–1674), primarily over:
Map of the North Sea and English Channel, the maritime theatre of the Anglo-Dutch Wars. It highlights sea lanes and ports contested during seventeenth-century rivalry for trade supremacy. Source
Control of maritime trade routes.
Dominance in Asian spice trade and Atlantic commerce.
Imperial Significance
England captured New Amsterdam in 1664, renaming it New York, marking a crucial step in North American expansion.
Naval warfare forced England to strengthen its Royal Navy, laying foundations for long-term maritime supremacy.
Royal Navy: England’s permanent naval force, expanded significantly from the seventeenth century, which became the backbone of British imperial power.
France as a Major Rival
Military and Colonial Rivalry
France posed the greatest long-term threat to Britain’s empire due to its:
Larger population and army.
Expanding colonial empire in North America, the Caribbean, and India.
Conflicts with France
Nine Years’ War (1688–1697) and War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714) highlighted Britain’s determination to block French dominance in Europe and overseas.
Colonies in North America and the Caribbean were frequent battle zones between the two powers.
Map of North America in the French and Indian War, showing British and French territories, forts, and campaigns. It demonstrates how European rivalries extended into colonial battle zones. Source
Diplomatic Alliances Against France
Britain often sought alliances with smaller states and other great powers to counterbalance French strength, aligning with the Netherlands, Austria, and Portugal at various times.
Shaping Imperial Development
Trade and Economic Growth
European alliances and rivalries shaped Britain’s imperial economic priorities:
Wars disrupted and redirected trade, particularly in sugar, tobacco, and spices.
Alliances opened new markets; treaties often granted Britain trading rights.
Military and Naval Strategy
Rivalries necessitated continual naval expansion, ensuring Britain’s ships could defend trade routes and project power overseas.
Alliances often allowed Britain to share burdens of continental wars, freeing resources for colonial ventures.
Colonial Possessions and Treaties
Treaties following European wars frequently reshaped Britain’s empire, transferring territories between European powers.
For example, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain Gibraltar, Minorca, and the lucrative asiento (slave trade contract).
The Interconnectedness of Europe and Empire
The interplay of European alliances and rivalries was central to the development of the British Empire between 1558 and 1783. England’s imperial policies were never autonomous but consistently framed by the need to respond to the power dynamics of Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands. European politics determined where resources were directed, which colonies were defended or abandoned, and how trade networks were secured or lost.
FAQ
England’s conflict with Spain often pushed it towards cooperation with Protestant states such as the Netherlands, as both shared a common enemy.
At times, England sought to balance its position by cultivating alliances with smaller Catholic states like Portugal, especially after Portugal regained independence from Spain in 1640.
This rivalry created a pattern where England’s alliances were largely shaped by the need to counter Spanish influence.
Although England and the Netherlands were both Protestant states, their economies were built on trade and shipping, placing them in direct competition.
The Dutch dominated the spice trade and European shipping lanes in the early seventeenth century.
England resented Dutch monopolies and sought to break them through the Navigation Acts.
Competition over colonies such as New Amsterdam intensified tensions, leading to open warfare.
Thus, shared religion did not outweigh economic rivalry.
Marriage alliances had a direct impact on empire. The most important example was Charles II’s marriage to Catherine of Braganza in 1661.
This union brought:
Tangier (North Africa), a naval base of strategic importance.
Bombay (India), which later became a crucial foothold for East India Company expansion.
Dynastic diplomacy therefore linked European relationships to Britain’s global empire.
France’s large standing army and growing navy forced Britain to prioritise naval supremacy.
Britain invested heavily in shipbuilding, professionalising the Royal Navy.
Naval bases such as Gibraltar (acquired in 1713) became essential to controlling Mediterranean trade.
Frequent colonial wars, particularly in North America and the Caribbean, reinforced the necessity of protecting transatlantic routes.
French rivalry ensured that Britain viewed naval power as the cornerstone of its empire.
Treaties often transferred strategic territories and opened new commercial opportunities.
Key examples:
Treaty of Westminster (1674): Ended the Third Anglo-Dutch War, securing New York.
Treaty of Utrecht (1713): Gave Britain Gibraltar, Minorca, and the asiento contract, strengthening both naval and commercial power.
These agreements showed how European diplomacy directly redrew the map of Britain’s empire.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two European powers, other than Spain, with which Britain had significant alliances or rivalries between 1558 and 1783.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying each relevant power (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers: Portugal, France, the Netherlands.
Do not accept vague answers such as “Europe” or “other countries”.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how rivalry with France influenced Britain’s imperial development between 1558 and 1783.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic or general description with limited reference to France, e.g. “France was a rival to Britain” without detail.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of rivalry with France and its effects, e.g. reference to wars in North America or Caribbean colonies, mention of the Nine Years’ War or War of Spanish Succession.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation showing clear links between rivalry with France and Britain’s imperial development, e.g. naval expansion, colonial conflicts in North America, the importance of treaties such as Utrecht, or how French competition pushed Britain to strengthen its empire.
Award up to 6 marks for breadth and depth of explanation, not for length.
