AP Syllabus focus:
‘Land and maritime boundaries and international agreements can shape identity and encourage or discourage interactions, including disputes over resources.’
Land and maritime boundaries structure political space, influence how groups define themselves, and determine access to valuable resources, often generating cooperation or conflict between neighboring states.
Land and Maritime Boundaries in Political Geography
Land and maritime boundaries are central to how states define territory and assert sovereignty, the authority of a state to govern itself and control its territory. These boundaries help establish where state power begins and ends, shaping political interaction, identity formation, and resource allocation. Because boundaries influence national narratives and economic opportunity, they can become deeply contested when communities or governments view border arrangements as unfair or illegitimate.
Boundary Functions and Identity
Political boundaries contribute to national identity, the shared sense of belonging to a nation, by creating spatial limits around which cultural, linguistic, or historical connections can form. When boundaries align poorly with group identities—dividing ethnic communities or enclosing minority groups—tensions may arise. These tensions can manifest as border disputes, autonomy movements, or demands for greater recognition within the state.
Land Boundaries and Disputes
Land boundaries separate territories on continents and islands and are often shaped by historical treaties, wars, or negotiations. These borders may reflect physical features such as mountains or rivers, but they can also be geometric, following straight lines that ignore cultural landscapes. Problems emerge when boundaries cut through communities or when resources lie directly on or near the border.
Common causes of land boundary disputes include:
Ambiguous boundary definitions arising from vague historical documents.
Cultural divisions, where borders separate groups with strong shared identities.
Competing territorial claims, especially in regions previously colonized or lacking precise mapping.
Resource-rich zones, particularly where minerals, farmland, or water sources span borders.
Because land boundaries often intersect with populated areas, disputes can directly shape identity, heighten nationalism, and influence patterns of migration or conflict.
Maritime Boundaries and International Agreements
Maritime boundaries govern the political organization of ocean space.
This map displays exclusive economic zones (EEZs) worldwide, showing how coastal states extend resource rights up to 200 nautical miles from shore. It also highlights joint and disputed EEZs, illustrating how overlapping claims can emerge when maritime zones intersect. Some distinctions shown in the legend exceed AP Human Geography requirements but help demonstrate the complexity of real-world maritime boundaries. Source.
These boundaries determine which state can exploit marine resources, regulate shipping, and exercise authority over territorial waters. Competition for these rights can produce significant geopolitical tension, particularly in waters with valuable fisheries, offshore oil, or strategic trade routes.
Key Maritime Zones
When states delineate maritime boundaries, they typically rely on internationally recognized categories of ocean space. Maritime boundaries extend outward from a baseline, usually the low-water line along a coast. Zones vary by distance and legal rights, influencing how states manage interactions and resources.
Baseline: The low-water line along a coast from which maritime zones are measured in international law.
Maritime zoning encourages or discourages interaction depending on how clearly boundaries are established.
Sources of Maritime Disputes
Maritime disputes frequently involve competing claims over overlapping zones.
This map illustrates overlapping maritime claims in the South China Sea, including exclusive economic zones and China’s nine-dash line. It shows how fisheries, offshore oil and gas potential, and strategic shipping routes heighten disputes. The detailed territorial labels exceed syllabus requirements but effectively demonstrate the geopolitical impact of contested maritime boundaries. Source.
These disputes become more intense when:
Valuable seabed resources, such as oil and natural gas, lie beneath contested waters.
Fisheries provide key economic livelihoods for coastal communities.
Strategic waterways enable naval power projection or commercial shipping.
Archipelagos or small islands extend claims outward, even if uninhabited.
States often construct artificial islands, deploy naval patrols, or negotiate bilateral agreements to strengthen their claims.
Identity Formation and Boundary Perception
Because boundaries shape how people imagine political space, they profoundly influence collective identity. When communities feel that international borders respect their historical and cultural ties, boundaries can reinforce unity. When borders divide cultural groups or enclose minorities, they may foster resentment or fuel nationalist narratives. Boundaries along coastlines also affect maritime cultural identities, influencing fishing traditions and economic activities tied to the sea.
Social and Cultural Impacts
Political boundaries—whether on land or at sea—affect:
Cross-border interaction, determining how easily people can travel, trade, or communicate.
Cultural diffusion, as strict borders impede movement while open borders facilitate exchange.
Economic opportunity, because resource access influences regional development.
These impacts shape everyday life and long-term national narratives.
Resource Disputes and Geopolitical Tensions
Resource disputes occur when states claim ownership or extraction rights to land or maritime resources located in contested areas. These disputes can escalate into diplomatic standoffs or military confrontations when economic stakes are high. Even when conflict is avoided, competition for resources influences foreign policy, alliance-building, and national rhetoric.
Types of Resource Disputes
Common areas of contention include:
Shared rivers or freshwater systems, vital for drinking water, agriculture, and energy.
Mineral deposits located near or across terrestrial borders.
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) containing fish stocks, oil fields, or gas reserves.
Shipping lanes, which provide access to global markets.
States may appeal to international courts, negotiate treaties, or engage in joint-development agreements to manage these disputes.
Boundary Agreements and Influence on Interaction
International agreements help regulate how boundaries function and reduce conflict. Clear boundary arrangements can promote cooperation and facilitate trade, while unclear or disputed boundaries create friction. Maritime agreements in particular influence global interaction by organizing shipping access, resource extraction, and marine conservation.
How Agreements Shape Behavior
Agreements can:
Clarify jurisdiction, reducing the likelihood of accidental violations.
Define resource-sharing rules, lowering tensions over economic competition.
Promote regional collaboration, strengthening political relationships.
Discourage militarization, especially in contested maritime zones.
These agreements ultimately affect how states interact, how communities identify themselves, and how resources are managed across borders.
FAQ
States often begin by negotiating bilateral or regional agreements to establish provisional boundaries or joint-development zones. These allow both parties to benefit from shared resources without settling long-term sovereignty questions.
If negotiations fail, countries may turn to international legal bodies such as the International Court of Justice or the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.
Outcomes may include:
A median-line boundary
A resource-sharing agreement
A ruling granting one state greater access based on coastline length or geographic position
Even very small or uninhabited islands can extend a country’s maritime claims by generating a territorial sea or, if legally recognised, an EEZ.
This gives states control over surrounding fisheries, seabed minerals, or potential oil and gas reserves.
Because of this, countries may:
Contest sovereignty over small islands
Construct facilities to demonstrate effective control
Use islands strategically to expand their maritime presence
Local communities may experience disrupted access to traditional fishing grounds if rival states impose patrols, restrictions, or warning zones.
Economic uncertainty can increase, especially when livelihoods depend on marine resources.
Communities may also become symbols of national identity, with governments encouraging patriotic narratives to justify claims. This can create social pressure or limit cross-border cooperation that once existed informally.
Major shipping routes pass through narrow straits or contested waters, giving states incentives to assert control over navigation.
Tensions may rise when a state:
Attempts to impose transit fees
Conducts naval exercises in sensitive areas
Interprets international navigation rights restrictively
Since many global supply chains rely on uninterrupted passage, disputes over shipping routes often attract international attention rather than remaining bilateral issues.
Shifting coastlines due to erosion or sea-level rise can alter a state’s baseline, potentially changing the extent of its maritime zones.
This may lead to:
Loss of territorial sea or EEZ area
Boundary renegotiation
Increased competition for shrinking or newly accessible resources
In polar regions, melting sea ice opens new navigation routes and resource prospects, prompting states to revise claims or strengthen scientific and military presence.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (1–3 marks)
Explain one way in which maritime boundaries can contribute to resource disputes between neighbouring states.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying a valid factor (e.g., overlapping EEZ claims, unclear boundary delimitation).
1 mark for explaining the link to resource competition (e.g., access to fisheries, offshore oil).
1 mark for stating how this can lead to tension or conflict (e.g., naval patrols, diplomatic disputes).
Question 2 (4–6 marks)
Using an example, analyse how land or maritime boundaries can shape the identities of groups living near them and influence political interactions between states.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying a relevant land or maritime boundary.
1 mark for describing the boundary’s basic function (e.g., limit of state sovereignty, EEZ rights).
1 mark for explaining how the boundary shapes group or national identity (e.g., reinforcing belonging, creating division).
1 mark for linking identity formation to political behaviour or interaction (e.g., nationalism, border negotiations).
1–2 marks for developing the example with accurate detail (e.g., South China Sea claims, cross-border ethnic groups), showing clear analytical connection to identity and political interaction.
