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Edexcel A-Level Biology

Study Notes

1. Lifestyle, Health and Risk

1.1.1 Need for Mass Transport in Animals

1.1.2 Water as a Solvent for Transport

1.1.3 Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

1.1.4 Mammalian Heart Structure and Major Blood Vessels

1.1.5 The Cardiac Cycle and Practical Heart Investigation

1.2.1 Development of Atherosclerosis

1.2.2 Blood Clotting and Thrombosis in CVD

1.2.3 Lifestyle and Biological Risk Factors for CVD

1.2.4 Analysing Illness and Mortality Data

1.2.5 Evaluating Studies of Health Risk Factors

1.2.6 Perceptions of Risk in Heart Disease

1.3.1 Energy Budgets and Diet Analysis

1.3.2 Energy Imbalance, Weight Change and Obesity

1.3.3 Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

1.3.4 Carbohydrate Structure, Roles and Energy Storage

1.3.5 Condensation, Glycosidic Bonds and Hydrolysis

1.3.6 Vitamin C Content in Food and Drink

1.4.1 Triglyceride Synthesis and Ester Bonds

1.4.2 Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids

1.4.3 HDL, LDL and Cholesterol Data

1.4.4 Evidence Linking Cholesterol to CVD

1.4.5 Reducing Coronary Heart Disease Risk

1.5.1 Caffeine and Heart Rate in Daphnia

1.5.2 Ethical Issues in Invertebrate Research

1.5.3 Treatments for Cardiovascular Disease

1.1.1 Need for Mass Transport in Animals

1.1.2 Water as a Solvent for Transport

1.1.3 Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

1.1.4 Mammalian Heart Structure and Major Blood Vessels

1.1.5 The Cardiac Cycle and Practical Heart Investigation

1.2.1 Development of Atherosclerosis

1.2.2 Blood Clotting and Thrombosis in CVD

1.2.3 Lifestyle and Biological Risk Factors for CVD

1.2.4 Analysing Illness and Mortality Data

1.2.5 Evaluating Studies of Health Risk Factors

1.2.6 Perceptions of Risk in Heart Disease

1.3.1 Energy Budgets and Diet Analysis

1.3.2 Energy Imbalance, Weight Change and Obesity

1.3.3 Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

1.3.4 Carbohydrate Structure, Roles and Energy Storage

1.3.5 Condensation, Glycosidic Bonds and Hydrolysis

1.3.6 Vitamin C Content in Food and Drink

1.4.1 Triglyceride Synthesis and Ester Bonds

1.4.2 Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids

1.4.3 HDL, LDL and Cholesterol Data

1.4.4 Evidence Linking Cholesterol to CVD

1.4.5 Reducing Coronary Heart Disease Risk

1.5.1 Caffeine and Heart Rate in Daphnia

1.5.2 Ethical Issues in Invertebrate Research

1.5.3 Treatments for Cardiovascular Disease

2. Genes and Health

2.1.1 Properties of Effective Gas Exchange Surfaces

2.1.2 Fick's Law and Rate of Diffusion

2.1.3 Mammalian Lung Adaptations for Gas Exchange

2.2.1 Structure and Properties of Cell Membranes

2.2.2 The Fluid Mosaic Model as a Scientific Model

2.2.3 Investigating Membrane Permeability

2.3.1 Osmosis and Free Water Molecules

2.3.2 Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion

2.3.3 Active Transport and the Role of ATP

2.3.4 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

2.4.1 Mononucleotides and Their Components

2.4.2 Bases in DNA and RNA

2.4.3 Polynucleotides, DNA and RNA Structure

2.4.4 Complementary Base Pairing and the DNA Double Helix

2.5.1 Genes as Base Sequences

2.5.2 The Nature of the Genetic Code

2.5.3 Transcription and the DNA Template Strand

2.5.4 Translation, mRNA and tRNA

2.5.5 Start and Stop Codons in Protein Synthesis

2.6.1 Amino Acid Structure and Peptide Bonds

2.6.2 Primary Structure and Protein Folding

2.6.3 Globular and Fibrous Proteins

2.6.4 Enzyme Action, Specificity and Activation Energy

2.6.5 Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes

2.6.6 Investigating Initial Rates of Enzyme Reactions

2.7.1 DNA Replication and DNA Polymerase

2.7.2 Meselson and Stahl's Experiment

2.7.3 Replication Errors and Mutations

2.7.4 Gene Mutations and Cystic Fibrosis

2.7.5 Effects of Cystic Fibrosis on Body Systems

2.8.1 Key Genetic Terms

2.8.2 Monohybrid Inheritance Patterns

2.8.3 Uses of Genetic Screening

2.8.4 Implications of Prenatal Genetic Screening

2.8.5 Social and Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening

2.1.1 Properties of Effective Gas Exchange Surfaces

2.1.2 Fick's Law and Rate of Diffusion

2.1.3 Mammalian Lung Adaptations for Gas Exchange

2.2.1 Structure and Properties of Cell Membranes

2.2.2 The Fluid Mosaic Model as a Scientific Model

2.2.3 Investigating Membrane Permeability

2.3.1 Osmosis and Free Water Molecules

2.3.2 Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion

2.3.3 Active Transport and the Role of ATP

2.3.4 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

2.4.1 Mononucleotides and Their Components

2.4.2 Bases in DNA and RNA

2.4.3 Polynucleotides, DNA and RNA Structure

2.4.4 Complementary Base Pairing and the DNA Double Helix

2.5.1 Genes as Base Sequences

2.5.2 The Nature of the Genetic Code

2.5.3 Transcription and the DNA Template Strand

2.5.4 Translation, mRNA and tRNA

2.5.5 Start and Stop Codons in Protein Synthesis

2.6.1 Amino Acid Structure and Peptide Bonds

2.6.2 Primary Structure and Protein Folding

2.6.3 Globular and Fibrous Proteins

2.6.4 Enzyme Action, Specificity and Activation Energy

2.6.5 Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes

2.6.6 Investigating Initial Rates of Enzyme Reactions

2.7.1 DNA Replication and DNA Polymerase

2.7.2 Meselson and Stahl's Experiment

2.7.3 Replication Errors and Mutations

2.7.4 Gene Mutations and Cystic Fibrosis

2.7.5 Effects of Cystic Fibrosis on Body Systems

2.8.1 Key Genetic Terms

2.8.2 Monohybrid Inheritance Patterns

2.8.3 Uses of Genetic Screening

2.8.4 Implications of Prenatal Genetic Screening

2.8.5 Social and Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening

3. Voice of the Genome
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3.1.1 Cells as the Basic Unit of Living Organisms

3.1.2 Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells

3.1.3 Protein Transport by the rER and Golgi Apparatus

3.1.4 Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic Cells

3.1.5 Recognising Organelles in Electron Micrographs

3.2.1 Specialisation of Mammalian Gametes

3.2.2 Fertilisation in Mammals

3.2.3 Genes, Loci and Linkage

3.2.4 Meiosis and Genetic Variation

3.2.5 Mitosis, the Cell Cycle and Identical Daughter Cells

3.2.6 Core Practical 5: Observing Mitosis in a Root Tip Squash

3.3.1 Stem Cells, Pluripotency and Totipotency

3.3.2 Scientific Decisions About Stem Cell Therapies

3.3.3 Differential Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis

3.3.4 Gene Switching and the lac Operon

3.3.5 Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems

3.4.1 Genotype, Environment and Phenotype

3.4.2 DNA Methylation and Histone Modification

3.4.3 Passing On Epigenetic Changes

3.4.4 Polygenic Inheritance and Multiple Loci

3.4.5 Continuous Variation and Environmental Effects

3.1.1 Cells as the Basic Unit of Living Organisms

3.1.2 Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells

3.1.3 Protein Transport by the rER and Golgi Apparatus

3.1.4 Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic Cells

3.1.5 Recognising Organelles in Electron Micrographs

3.2.1 Specialisation of Mammalian Gametes

3.2.2 Fertilisation in Mammals

3.2.3 Genes, Loci and Linkage

3.2.4 Meiosis and Genetic Variation

3.2.5 Mitosis, the Cell Cycle and Identical Daughter Cells

3.2.6 Core Practical 5: Observing Mitosis in a Root Tip Squash

3.3.1 Stem Cells, Pluripotency and Totipotency

3.3.2 Scientific Decisions About Stem Cell Therapies

3.3.3 Differential Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis

3.3.4 Gene Switching and the lac Operon

3.3.5 Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems

3.4.1 Genotype, Environment and Phenotype

3.4.2 DNA Methylation and Histone Modification

3.4.3 Passing On Epigenetic Changes

3.4.4 Polygenic Inheritance and Multiple Loci

3.4.5 Continuous Variation and Environmental Effects

4. Biodiversity and Natural Resources
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4.1.1 The Variety of Life and Human Threats

4.1.2 Biodiversity and Endemism

4.1.3 Measuring Species Richness in a Habitat

4.1.4 Measuring Genetic Diversity with the Heterozygosity Index

4.1.5 Comparing Biodiversity Using an Index of Diversity

4.2.1 The Concept of an Ecological Niche

4.2.2 Behavioural, Physiological and Anatomical Adaptations

4.2.3 Natural Selection and Adaptation

4.2.4 Natural Selection and Evolution

4.2.5 Hardy-Weinberg and Allele Frequency Change

4.2.6 Reproductive Isolation and Speciation

4.3.1 Classification and the Species Concept

4.3.2 Molecular Phylogeny and the Three Domains

4.3.3 Ultrastructure of Plant Cells

4.3.4 Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

4.3.5 Recognising Organelles in Electron Micrographs

4.4.1 Structure and Function of Starch

4.4.2 Cellulose, Hydrogen Bonds and Microfibrils

4.4.3 Cellulose Microfibrils, Secondary Thickening and Plant Fibres

4.4.4 Identifying Plant Tissues in Stems

4.4.5 Comparing Sclerenchyma, Xylem and Phloem

4.5.1 Water and Inorganic Ions in Plants

4.5.2 Investigating Plant Mineral Deficiencies

4.5.3 Testing the Tensile Strength of Plant Fibres

4.5.4 Development of Drug Testing

4.5.5 Bacterial Growth and Plant Antimicrobials

4.5.6 Plant Products and Sustainability

4.6.1 Conserving Endangered Species and Genetic Diversity

4.6.2 Zoos, Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

4.6.3 Seed Banks and Plant Conservation

4.1.1 The Variety of Life and Human Threats

4.1.2 Biodiversity and Endemism

4.1.3 Measuring Species Richness in a Habitat

4.1.4 Measuring Genetic Diversity with the Heterozygosity Index

4.1.5 Comparing Biodiversity Using an Index of Diversity

4.2.1 The Concept of an Ecological Niche

4.2.2 Behavioural, Physiological and Anatomical Adaptations

4.2.3 Natural Selection and Adaptation

4.2.4 Natural Selection and Evolution

4.2.5 Hardy-Weinberg and Allele Frequency Change

4.2.6 Reproductive Isolation and Speciation

4.3.1 Classification and the Species Concept

4.3.2 Molecular Phylogeny and the Three Domains

4.3.3 Ultrastructure of Plant Cells

4.3.4 Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

4.3.5 Recognising Organelles in Electron Micrographs

4.4.1 Structure and Function of Starch

4.4.2 Cellulose, Hydrogen Bonds and Microfibrils

4.4.3 Cellulose Microfibrils, Secondary Thickening and Plant Fibres

4.4.4 Identifying Plant Tissues in Stems

4.4.5 Comparing Sclerenchyma, Xylem and Phloem

4.5.1 Water and Inorganic Ions in Plants

4.5.2 Investigating Plant Mineral Deficiencies

4.5.3 Testing the Tensile Strength of Plant Fibres

4.5.4 Development of Drug Testing

4.5.5 Bacterial Growth and Plant Antimicrobials

4.5.6 Plant Products and Sustainability

4.6.1 Conserving Endangered Species and Genetic Diversity

4.6.2 Zoos, Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

4.6.3 Seed Banks and Plant Conservation

5. On the Wild Side
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5.1.1 Ecosystems, Communities, Populations and Habitats

5.1.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Habitats

5.1.3 Ecological Niches, Distribution and Abundance

5.1.4 Investigating Distribution and Abundance Using Quadrats and Transects

5.1.5 Measuring Abiotic Factors in Ecological Fieldwork

5.2.1 Stages of Ecological Succession

5.2.2 The Overall Reaction of Photosynthesis

5.2.3 Photosynthesis, Glucose and Energy Storage

5.2.4 ATP, ADP and Energy Transfer in Cells

5.3.1 Chlorophyll and Electron Excitation

5.3.2 Photophosphorylation and ATP Production

5.3.3 Photolysis of Water and NADP Reduction

5.3.4 Chloroplast Structure and Photosynthesis

5.3.5 Investigating Photosynthesis Using the Hill Reaction

5.4.1 Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle

5.4.2 GP, GALP, RuBP and RUBISCO in Photosynthesis

5.4.3 Simple Sugars and New Biological Molecules

5.5.1 Gross Primary Productivity, Plant Respiration and Net Primary Productivity

5.5.2 Calculating Net Primary Productivity

5.5.3 Efficiency of Biomass and Energy Transfers

5.6.1 Evidence for Climate Change

5.6.2 Correlations, Causal Relationships and Climate Data

5.6.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases

5.6.4 Climate Models, Extrapolation and Predictions

5.6.5 Limitations of Climate Change Models

5.7.1 Effects of Changing Rainfall Patterns and Seasonal Cycles

5.7.2 Effects of Climate Change on Plant and Animal Distribution

5.7.3 Climate Change, Development and Life Cycles

5.7.4 Temperature and Enzyme Activity

5.7.5 Investigating Temperature, Enzymes and Organism Development

5.8.1 Evolution as a Change in Allele Frequency

5.8.2 Scientific Validation of Evidence for Evolution

5.8.3 Proteomics and Genomics as Evidence for Evolution

5.8.4 Isolation, Gene Flow and Speciation

5.9.1 Scientific Conclusions and Controversial Climate Issues

5.9.2 Applying the Carbon Cycle to Reduce Carbon Dioxide

5.9.3 Reforestation, Sustainable Resources and Biofuels

5.1.1 Ecosystems, Communities, Populations and Habitats

5.1.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Habitats

5.1.3 Ecological Niches, Distribution and Abundance

5.1.4 Investigating Distribution and Abundance Using Quadrats and Transects

5.1.5 Measuring Abiotic Factors in Ecological Fieldwork

5.2.1 Stages of Ecological Succession

5.2.2 The Overall Reaction of Photosynthesis

5.2.3 Photosynthesis, Glucose and Energy Storage

5.2.4 ATP, ADP and Energy Transfer in Cells

5.3.1 Chlorophyll and Electron Excitation

5.3.2 Photophosphorylation and ATP Production

5.3.3 Photolysis of Water and NADP Reduction

5.3.4 Chloroplast Structure and Photosynthesis

5.3.5 Investigating Photosynthesis Using the Hill Reaction

5.4.1 Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle

5.4.2 GP, GALP, RuBP and RUBISCO in Photosynthesis

5.4.3 Simple Sugars and New Biological Molecules

5.5.1 Gross Primary Productivity, Plant Respiration and Net Primary Productivity

5.5.2 Calculating Net Primary Productivity

5.5.3 Efficiency of Biomass and Energy Transfers

5.6.1 Evidence for Climate Change

5.6.2 Correlations, Causal Relationships and Climate Data

5.6.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases

5.6.4 Climate Models, Extrapolation and Predictions

5.6.5 Limitations of Climate Change Models

5.7.1 Effects of Changing Rainfall Patterns and Seasonal Cycles

5.7.2 Effects of Climate Change on Plant and Animal Distribution

5.7.3 Climate Change, Development and Life Cycles

5.7.4 Temperature and Enzyme Activity

5.7.5 Investigating Temperature, Enzymes and Organism Development

5.8.1 Evolution as a Change in Allele Frequency

5.8.2 Scientific Validation of Evidence for Evolution

5.8.3 Proteomics and Genomics as Evidence for Evolution

5.8.4 Isolation, Gene Flow and Speciation

5.9.1 Scientific Conclusions and Controversial Climate Issues

5.9.2 Applying the Carbon Cycle to Reduce Carbon Dioxide

5.9.3 Reforestation, Sustainable Resources and Biofuels

6. Immunity, Infection and Forensics
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6.1.1 Estimating Time of Death Using Decomposition and Succession

6.1.2 Forensic Entomology and Insect Evidence

6.1.3 Body Temperature and Muscle Contraction After Death

6.1.4 Microorganisms, Decomposition and Carbon Recycling

6.2.1 DNA Profiling for Identification

6.2.2 DNA Profiling and Genetic Relationships

6.2.3 Amplifying DNA Using PCR

6.2.4 Separating DNA Fragments by Gel Electrophoresis

6.3.1 Comparing the Structure of Bacteria and Viruses

6.3.2 Tuberculosis Infection and Symptoms

6.3.3 HIV Infection and Symptoms

6.3.4 Routes of Pathogen Entry into the Body

6.3.5 Barriers Against Infection

6.4.1 Inflammation, Lysozyme and Interferon

6.4.2 Phagocytosis and Antigen Presentation

6.4.3 Antigens, Antibodies and Plasma Cells

6.4.4 B Cells in the Immune Response

6.4.5 T Cells in the Immune Response

6.5.1 Natural, Artificial, Active and Passive Immunity

6.5.2 Post-Transcriptional Changes to mRNA

6.5.3 Evolutionary Race Between Pathogens and Hosts

6.6.1 Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Antibiotics

6.6.2 Investigating the Effect of Antibiotics on Bacteria

6.6.3 Hospital Acquired Infections and Antibiotic Prescription

6.6.4 Infection Prevention and Control in Hospitals

6.1.1 Estimating Time of Death Using Decomposition and Succession

6.1.2 Forensic Entomology and Insect Evidence

6.1.3 Body Temperature and Muscle Contraction After Death

6.1.4 Microorganisms, Decomposition and Carbon Recycling

6.2.1 DNA Profiling for Identification

6.2.2 DNA Profiling and Genetic Relationships

6.2.3 Amplifying DNA Using PCR

6.2.4 Separating DNA Fragments by Gel Electrophoresis

6.3.1 Comparing the Structure of Bacteria and Viruses

6.3.2 Tuberculosis Infection and Symptoms

6.3.3 HIV Infection and Symptoms

6.3.4 Routes of Pathogen Entry into the Body

6.3.5 Barriers Against Infection

6.4.1 Inflammation, Lysozyme and Interferon

6.4.2 Phagocytosis and Antigen Presentation

6.4.3 Antigens, Antibodies and Plasma Cells

6.4.4 B Cells in the Immune Response

6.4.5 T Cells in the Immune Response

6.5.1 Natural, Artificial, Active and Passive Immunity

6.5.2 Post-Transcriptional Changes to mRNA

6.5.3 Evolutionary Race Between Pathogens and Hosts

6.6.1 Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Antibiotics

6.6.2 Investigating the Effect of Antibiotics on Bacteria

6.6.3 Hospital Acquired Infections and Antibiotic Prescription

6.6.4 Infection Prevention and Control in Hospitals

7. Run for your Life
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7.1.1 Roles of Muscles, Tendons, Bones and Ligaments in Movement

7.1.2 Antagonistic Muscle Pairs

7.1.3 Flexors and Extensors

7.1.4 Skeletal Muscle Contraction and the Sliding Filament Theory

7.1.5 Regulatory Proteins and Calcium Ions in Muscle Contraction

7.1.6 ATP, ATPase and Cross-Bridge Cycling

7.2.1 The Overall Reaction of Aerobic Respiration

7.2.2 Respiration as an Enzyme-Controlled Process

7.2.3 Glycolysis in Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

7.2.4 Anaerobic Respiration and Lactate Production

7.2.5 The Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle

7.2.6 Mitochondria, Oxidative Phosphorylation and Chemiosmosis

7.3.1 The Fate of Lactate After Anaerobic Respiration

7.3.2 Investigating Rate of Respiration

7.4.1 Myogenic Cardiac Muscle

7.4.2 Electrical Coordination of the Heartbeat

7.4.3 ECGs and Heart Condition Diagnosis

7.4.4 Calculating Cardiac Output

7.4.5 Ventilation and Cardiac Output During Exercise

7.4.6 Control of Heart Rate and Ventilation Rate

7.5.1 Interpreting Spirometer Traces During Exercise

7.5.2 Structure of a Muscle Fibre

7.5.3 Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres

7.5.4 Negative and Positive Feedback Control

7.5.5 Negative Feedback and Narrow Limits

7.6.1 Homeostasis During Exercise

7.6.2 Hypothalamus and Thermoregulation

7.6.3 Interpreting Data on Too Much and Too Little Exercise

7.6.4 Medical Technology and Participation in Sport

7.6.5 Ethics of Performance-Enhancing Substances

7.6.6 Gene Switching by Transcription Factors and Hormones

7.1.1 Roles of Muscles, Tendons, Bones and Ligaments in Movement

7.1.2 Antagonistic Muscle Pairs

7.1.3 Flexors and Extensors

7.1.4 Skeletal Muscle Contraction and the Sliding Filament Theory

7.1.5 Regulatory Proteins and Calcium Ions in Muscle Contraction

7.1.6 ATP, ATPase and Cross-Bridge Cycling

7.2.1 The Overall Reaction of Aerobic Respiration

7.2.2 Respiration as an Enzyme-Controlled Process

7.2.3 Glycolysis in Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

7.2.4 Anaerobic Respiration and Lactate Production

7.2.5 The Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle

7.2.6 Mitochondria, Oxidative Phosphorylation and Chemiosmosis

7.3.1 The Fate of Lactate After Anaerobic Respiration

7.3.2 Investigating Rate of Respiration

7.4.1 Myogenic Cardiac Muscle

7.4.2 Electrical Coordination of the Heartbeat

7.4.3 ECGs and Heart Condition Diagnosis

7.4.4 Calculating Cardiac Output

7.4.5 Ventilation and Cardiac Output During Exercise

7.4.6 Control of Heart Rate and Ventilation Rate

7.5.1 Interpreting Spirometer Traces During Exercise

7.5.2 Structure of a Muscle Fibre

7.5.3 Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres

7.5.4 Negative and Positive Feedback Control

7.5.5 Negative Feedback and Narrow Limits

7.6.1 Homeostasis During Exercise

7.6.2 Hypothalamus and Thermoregulation

7.6.3 Interpreting Data on Too Much and Too Little Exercise

7.6.4 Medical Technology and Participation in Sport

7.6.5 Ethics of Performance-Enhancing Substances

7.6.6 Gene Switching by Transcription Factors and Hormones

8. Grey Matter
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8.1.1 Structure and Function of Sensory, Relay and Motor Neurones

8.1.2 Schwann Cells, Myelination and Axon Insulation

8.1.3 Stimulus-Response Pathways and Effectors

8.1.4 Pupil Dilation and Constriction as a Nervous Response

8.2.1 Action Potentials and Ion Movement Along Axons

8.2.2 Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Axons

8.2.3 Synapse Structure and Nerve Impulse Transmission

8.2.4 Neurotransmitters and Acetylcholine at Synapses

8.3.1 Rod Cells in the Mammalian Retina

8.3.2 Rhodopsin, Opsin and Retinal in Photoreception

8.3.3 Sodium Ions, Cation Channels and Rod Cell Hyperpolarisation

8.3.4 Critical Periods and Development of Visual Capacity

8.4.1 Phytochrome and Plant Responses to Light

8.4.2 IAA and Plant Growth Responses

8.5.1 Nervous and Hormonal Coordination in Animals

8.5.2 Cerebral Hemispheres and Higher Brain Functions

8.5.3 Hypothalamus, Cerebellum and Medulla Oblongata

8.5.4 MRI and CT Scans in Brain Diagnosis

8.5.5 fMRI and PET Scans in Brain Function Studies

8.6.1 Animal Models in Brain Development Research

8.6.2 Hubel and Wiesel’s Experiments with Monkeys and Kittens

8.6.3 Ethical Standpoints on Animals in Medical Research

8.6.4 Habituation as a Form of Learning

8.6.5 Investigating Habituation to a Stimulus

8.6.6 Nature, Nurture and Brain Development Evidence

8.7.1 Dopamine, Parkinson’s Disease and Brain Chemical Imbalance

8.7.2 Serotonin, Depression and Drug Development

8.7.3 Drugs and Synaptic Transmission

8.7.4 L-Dopa and Parkinson’s Disease Treatment

8.7.5 MDMA, Ecstasy and Synaptic Transmission

8.7.6 Genome Sequencing and Personalised Medicine

8.8.1 Producing Drugs Using Genetically Modified Microorganisms

8.8.2 Producing Drugs Using Genetically Modified Plants and Animals

8.8.3 Benefits of Using Genetically Modified Organisms

8.8.4 Risks of Using Genetically Modified Organisms

8.1.1 Structure and Function of Sensory, Relay and Motor Neurones

8.1.2 Schwann Cells, Myelination and Axon Insulation

8.1.3 Stimulus-Response Pathways and Effectors

8.1.4 Pupil Dilation and Constriction as a Nervous Response

8.2.1 Action Potentials and Ion Movement Along Axons

8.2.2 Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Axons

8.2.3 Synapse Structure and Nerve Impulse Transmission

8.2.4 Neurotransmitters and Acetylcholine at Synapses

8.3.1 Rod Cells in the Mammalian Retina

8.3.2 Rhodopsin, Opsin and Retinal in Photoreception

8.3.3 Sodium Ions, Cation Channels and Rod Cell Hyperpolarisation

8.3.4 Critical Periods and Development of Visual Capacity

8.4.1 Phytochrome and Plant Responses to Light

8.4.2 IAA and Plant Growth Responses

8.5.1 Nervous and Hormonal Coordination in Animals

8.5.2 Cerebral Hemispheres and Higher Brain Functions

8.5.3 Hypothalamus, Cerebellum and Medulla Oblongata

8.5.4 MRI and CT Scans in Brain Diagnosis

8.5.5 fMRI and PET Scans in Brain Function Studies

8.6.1 Animal Models in Brain Development Research

8.6.2 Hubel and Wiesel’s Experiments with Monkeys and Kittens

8.6.3 Ethical Standpoints on Animals in Medical Research

8.6.4 Habituation as a Form of Learning

8.6.5 Investigating Habituation to a Stimulus

8.6.6 Nature, Nurture and Brain Development Evidence

8.7.1 Dopamine, Parkinson’s Disease and Brain Chemical Imbalance

8.7.2 Serotonin, Depression and Drug Development

8.7.3 Drugs and Synaptic Transmission

8.7.4 L-Dopa and Parkinson’s Disease Treatment

8.7.5 MDMA, Ecstasy and Synaptic Transmission

8.7.6 Genome Sequencing and Personalised Medicine

8.8.1 Producing Drugs Using Genetically Modified Microorganisms

8.8.2 Producing Drugs Using Genetically Modified Plants and Animals

8.8.3 Benefits of Using Genetically Modified Organisms

8.8.4 Risks of Using Genetically Modified Organisms

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