The intricate task of delineating how we can claim to know something lies at the heart of epistemology. This encompasses the foundational understanding of knowledge as justified true belief (JTB) and grapples with its complications, like the Gettier problem and the regress issue, whilst evaluating contrasting models of justification such as foundationalism and coherentism.
Knowledge as Justified True Belief (JTB)
The classic theory of knowledge, JTB, stipulates that knowledge is composed of three essential elements:
- Truth: The proposition or belief must correspond to reality.
- Belief: The individual must believe in the proposition.
- Justification: Adequate support or reasons must underpin the belief.
This conceptualisation presumes that if a belief meets these criteria, it graduates to the status of knowledge.
The Gettier Problem
The Gettier problem has presented a formidable challenge to the JTB theory, suggesting that these criteria might not suffice for true knowledge.
- Illustrative Scenarios: The standard Gettier cases involve situations where the three criteria are apparently met, yet the belief does not seem to constitute knowledge.
- Implications: These cases have prompted philosophers to consider additional components to knowledge, such as a 'no false lemmas' clause or a reliability condition.
The Regress Problem
The justification component of JTB introduces the regress problem, questioning the end point of the justification process.
- Infinite Regress: Proposes an endless chain of justifications, which is impractical.
- Circular Regress: Leads to beliefs being justified by themselves in a circular manner, which is philosophically unsatisfactory.
- Terminating Regress: Suggests a stopping point in basic beliefs, which is where foundationalism enters the discussion.
Foundationalism
Foundationalism posits that certain axiomatic beliefs underpin the entire structure of knowledge.
Basic Beliefs
- Self-evident Nature: These are immediately recognised as true without requiring external justification.
- Indubitable: They are immune to doubt, such as the cogito argument 'I think, therefore I am'.
- Infallibility: The truth of these beliefs is not subject to error.
The Epistemic Edifice
- Non-basic Beliefs: These are justified by basic beliefs, forming an interlinked structure.
- Critique: Critics argue that foundationalism overestimates the number of self-evident truths and underestimates the role of coherence.
Coherentism
Coherentism, by contrast, denies the existence of foundational beliefs and instead advocates for a network of mutually supportive beliefs.
The Coherence Theory
- Belief System: Beliefs are justified through their mutual support within a vast network.
- Systemic Integration: New beliefs are justified by their fit within the existing network.
- Coherence vs. Correspondence: Coherentism prioritises internal consistency over direct correspondence with reality.
Evaluating Coherence
- System Check: The belief system is continuously evaluated for internal consistency.
- Convergence: Diverse beliefs converge through their interrelations, not through foundational truths.
- Critique: Detractors of coherentism argue it allows for the possibility of several equally coherent yet contradictory belief systems.
Comparing Foundationalism and Coherentism
- Approach to Justification: Foundationalism advocates for a linear, hierarchical approach, while coherentism promotes a holistic, interconnected one.
- Handling of Regress: Foundationalism terminates the regress with self-evident truths, while coherentism suggests that the network of beliefs, as a whole, is self-supporting.
The debate between foundationalism and coherentism is central to contemporary epistemology, with each offering insights into the nature of justification and knowledge.
Expanding the Dialogue on Justification
The dialogue on justification extends beyond foundationalism and coherentism, including alternative models like:
Infinitism
- Infinite Chains: Infinitism embraces the idea of an infinite chain of reasons as a positive feature rather than a problem.
- Criticism: It faces the challenge of explaining how humans can grasp an infinite series of justifications.
Foundherentism
- Combination: Foundherentism attempts to merge foundationalism and coherentism, advocating that some beliefs are more foundational than others but all are subject to the coherence test.
- Application: It tries to capitalise on the strengths and mitigate the weaknesses of both theories.
Contextualism
- Variable Standards: Contextualism suggests that the standards for justification may vary depending on the context, thus providing a flexible framework for understanding knowledge claims.
- Advantage: It allows for adjustments based on different epistemic situations, avoiding a one-size-fits-all approach.
Implications for Philosophy
The discourse surrounding the theories of justification has far-reaching implications:
- Epistemic Responsibility: These theories shape our understanding of what it means to be epistemically responsible.
- Philosophical Methodology: They influence the methodologies philosophers employ in analyzing and constructing arguments.
- Scope of Inquiry: They expand the scope of inquiry by encouraging nuanced questions about the nature of belief, evidence, and reason.
FAQ
Contemporary philosophers argue that social epistemology plays a vital role in theories of justification by expanding the framework of knowledge acquisition beyond the individual to the collective. They posit that individuals often rely on testimonies, social practices, and institutions to acquire knowledge, which necessitates considering how justification is socially mediated. For instance, the credibility of information sources, the dissemination of knowledge through social networks, and the collective validation of evidence all influence the justification of beliefs. This collective aspect is especially significant in the context of the internet and the digital age, where knowledge is often collaboratively constructed and critiqued. Hence, social epistemology provides a more comprehensive account of how beliefs are justified within a community or society.
In theories of justification, a 'defeater' is a piece of information or argument that, if introduced, would undermine a belief's justification. Defeaters are crucial in analysing knowledge claims because they highlight conditions under which justification fails. In relation to the Gettier problem, defeaters are especially relevant—they represent the hidden errors or elements of luck that, once revealed, demonstrate why a justified true belief might still fail to be knowledge. For instance, a belief based on a reliable process can be defeated if new evidence shows the process was not reliable in that particular instance. Addressing defeaters is therefore integral to refining our understanding of justification in the face of Gettier-style challenges.
Foundherentism can be seen both as a compromise and as a distinct epistemological theory. It attempts to synthesise foundationalism's base of infallible beliefs with coherentism's web of mutually supportive beliefs, advocating that some beliefs are more foundational while still needing coherence for justification. It acknowledges foundational beliefs that are not inferentially justified but are still fallible and subject to coherence testing. This hybrid approach is designed to leverage the strengths and compensate for the weaknesses of both foundationalism and coherentism, aiming to provide a more robust framework for epistemic justification. Foundherentism thus presents itself as a distinct model by integrating the key aspects of both theories while also addressing their limitations.
Contextualism challenges traditional theories of justification by asserting that the standards for justification are not fixed but can change depending on the context. This approach allows for a more nuanced and flexible understanding of knowledge, as the threshold for what counts as a justified belief varies with different epistemic contexts—such as everyday life versus scientific investigation. The potential benefits of contextualism include its adaptability to different situations and its capacity to account for the varying degrees of scrutiny that different knowledge claims require. For example, in a casual conversation, the justification needed to know the time is much less stringent than what is required in a courtroom setting to know the details of an event. Contextualism thus offers a pragmatic and versatile approach to epistemic justification.
Infinitism addresses the regress problem by proposing an infinite series of non-repeating reasons as a solution to the need for justification. Instead of looking for a foundational belief or a coherent system, infinitism accepts that justification can be an endless chain. The key argument is that each reason provided offers some degree of justification, and together, the infinite series provides comprehensive support for the belief. Although the theory faces criticism, especially regarding its practicality—since humans cannot possibly comprehend an infinite series—it offers a unique approach by reframing the regress problem as a fundamental feature of epistemic justification, rather than a dilemma to be solved.
Practice Questions
Coherentism posits that empirical knowledge is best justified within a web of interconnected beliefs that mutually support each other. This contrasts with foundationalism's insistence on self-evident truths as the basis for all subsequent knowledge. An excellent response might argue that coherentism adeptly accommodates the holistic and complex nature of empirical evidence, which often does not stem from incontrovertible axioms but rather from a network of interrelated, corroborative experiences and observations. It allows for a flexible and adaptable framework that can incorporate new evidence and hypotheses, reflecting the dynamic process of empirical enquiry.
The Gettier problem highlights scenarios where justified true belief does not equate to knowledge, thereby challenging the traditional analysis. A well-articulated response would explore how Gettier cases demonstrate the possibility of having a belief that is true and well-supported by justification, yet fails to be knowledge due to the presence of some element of luck or error in the justification process. This has significant implications, suggesting that an additional component, such as a no false lemmas clause or a reliable process of belief formation, may be necessary to accurately define knowledge. The Gettier problem fundamentally questions the sufficiency of JTB and has been pivotal in expanding the epistemological discourse on understanding knowledge.
George studied undergraduate and masters degrees in Classics and Philosophy at Oxford, as well as spending time at Yale. He specialises in helping students with UK and US university applications, including Oxbridge and the Ivy League. He writes extensively on education including on schools, universities, and pedagogy.