OCR Specification focus:
‘Huskisson on trade and finance; Peel at the Home Office; repeal of the Combination Laws and Test and Corporation Acts; Roman Catholic Emancipation.’
The period 1815–1830 saw significant economic and legal reforms under Liverpool’s Tory governments. Huskisson, Peel and the Catholic Emancipation debate highlight tensions between conservatism, reform and public pressure.
Huskisson on Trade and Finance
William Huskisson, as President of the Board of Trade and later as Treasurer of the Navy, played a central role in shifting British policy toward freer trade.
William Huskisson (1770–1830), shown in mezzotint after a work by Richard Rothwell, was central to the Board of Trade’s move toward reciprocity and tariff reduction in the 1820s. His policies prepared the ground for later free-trade measures. Image shows a bust-length statesman in Regency dress. Source
Background and Economic Context
After the Napoleonic Wars, Britain faced economic dislocation, rising unemployment and food shortages. The Corn Law of 1815, restricting cheap imports, demonstrated protectionist priorities. However, by the 1820s, mounting pressure for reform prompted gradual liberalisation.
Huskisson’s Trade Reforms
Huskisson believed in a moderate free trade approach, balancing national interests with global competitiveness. His measures included:
Reduction of tariffs on imported raw materials to aid manufacturers.
Revision of Navigation Laws, allowing greater colonial trade flexibility.
Reciprocity of Duties Act (1823): permitted mutual lowering of tariffs with other nations, encouraging international commerce.
Gradual relaxation of wartime restrictions that had stifled shipping and trade.
These reforms did not create full free trade but represented a significant shift toward economic liberalisation.
Financial Management
Huskisson also advocated fiscal responsibility, supporting reductions in government spending and attempts to stabilise the national debt. This linked with broader Tory aims of post-war economic consolidation.
Free Trade: An economic policy of minimal restrictions on imports and exports, encouraging international competition and reducing artificial price barriers such as tariffs.
His reforms faced opposition from protectionist landowners but gained support among manufacturers and merchants, setting the stage for later reforms under Peel.
Peel at the Home Office
Robert Peel, as Home Secretary (1822–1827, 1828–1830), introduced significant administrative and legal reforms.
Legal Reforms
Peel sought to modernise outdated and severe aspects of English criminal law. His initiatives included:
Reduction of capital offences, limiting the ‘Bloody Code’.
Codification of laws, making them more accessible and consistent.
Simplification of the criminal justice system, enhancing fairness and efficiency.
Bloody Code: The term describing the vast body of 18th- and early 19th-century English criminal law that prescribed the death penalty for many minor offences.
Policing Reforms
Peel’s most famous legacy was the establishment of the Metropolitan Police in 1829, often called ‘Peelers’ or ‘Bobbies’.
Title page of the Metropolitan Police Act (19 June 1829), establishing a professional police force for London. The Act formalised structure, funding and oversight of policing under the Home Office. Extra pages include detailed clauses beyond the syllabus focus. Source
This created the first organised, professional police force in London, with:
Uniformed, unarmed officers to prevent crime rather than merely punish it.
Recruitment based on discipline and respectability.
A centralised command structure to replace parish constables and watchmen.
This reform transformed law enforcement in Britain and became a model internationally.
Administrative Approach
Peel emphasised efficiency, rationality and humanitarian reform within a conservative framework, aiming to strengthen government legitimacy without conceding radical demands.
Repeal of the Combination Laws and Test and Corporation Acts
Two significant legal reforms in the 1820s reflected a more liberal Tory policy.
Combination Laws
The Combination Acts (1799–1800) had prohibited trade unions and collective bargaining by workers.
Repealed in 1824, due to pressure from working-class activism and liberal MPs.
Initially led to a surge in union activity and strikes.
Amending Act of 1825 restricted union power again, banning intimidation and limiting strike actions, but recognised workers’ rights to organise.
Test and Corporation Acts
These acts (1661, 1673) had restricted public office to members of the Church of England, excluding Dissenters.
Repealed in 1828, due to campaigning by nonconformists and support from moderate Tories and Whigs.
Marked a significant step toward religious toleration and broadening civil rights.
These repeals showed growing flexibility in government and a willingness to accommodate reform under pressure, while still preserving order.
Roman Catholic Emancipation
The most contentious reform of the era, Catholic Emancipation, was finally achieved in 1829 under the Duke of Wellington’s government, with Peel playing a critical role.
Title page of the Roman Catholic Relief Act (13 April 1829), the statute removing most civil disabilities on Roman Catholics. It underpinned O’Connell’s entry to Parliament and reshaped the confessional state. Further pages contain legal provisions not required by the syllabus. Source
Background
Since the 17th century, Catholics had been excluded from sitting in Parliament and holding many public offices.
The issue was politically sensitive, particularly in Ireland, where Catholic majority discontent fuelled unrest.
Daniel O’Connell’s Catholic Association mobilised mass support for emancipation, creating electoral pressure.
The Emancipation Act 1829
Granted Catholics the right to sit in Parliament and hold most public offices.
Repealed most of the penal laws discriminating against Catholics.
Lowered the Irish voting qualification from 40 shillings to £10, reducing the electorate, a measure designed to weaken O’Connell’s mass base.
Peel’s Role
Despite being nicknamed “Orange Peel” for his earlier opposition, Peel supported emancipation to prevent civil disorder in Ireland. His decision showed pragmatism, though it caused division within the Tory party.
Penal Laws: A series of statutes that imposed civil and legal disabilities on Catholics and Protestant Dissenters in Britain and Ireland.
The passing of emancipation was a watershed, undermining rigid Anglican monopoly but creating long-term tensions within conservatism.
The Balance of Reform and Conservatism
Taken together, Huskisson’s trade reforms, Peel’s legal and policing initiatives, the repeal of restrictive acts, and Catholic Emancipation reflect the “liberal Toryism” of the 1820s. The government aimed to modernise Britain while resisting radicalism, balancing economic progress and legal reform with the preservation of established authority.
FAQ
Huskisson’s tariff reductions threatened the dominance of landed interests who benefited from high agricultural prices. The Corn Law of 1815 protected grain profits, and many landowners feared cheaper imports would undermine their income.
The reforms signalled a move away from protectionism towards freer trade, unsettling those invested in traditional agriculture. This opposition reflected broader tensions between industrial and agricultural priorities in post-war Britain.
Before 1829, law enforcement relied on parish constables and night watchmen, who were often poorly trained and inconsistent.
Peel’s Metropolitan Police introduced:
A salaried, full-time force
Uniformed officers with a central command
An emphasis on prevention of crime rather than punishment
This professional model was unprecedented in Britain and aimed to enhance both efficiency and public trust.
Nonconformists, particularly Protestant Dissenters, actively campaigned for repeal by organising petitions, lobbying Parliament, and building alliances with sympathetic MPs.
They argued that exclusion from public office was discriminatory and contradicted Britain’s growing liberal values. Their coordinated activism helped make repeal politically viable, especially as the Whigs and some moderate Tories recognised the need for broader inclusion.
Peel had built his career as a staunch opponent of Catholic concessions, earning the nickname “Orange Peel.” His sudden change of position in 1829 shocked party loyalists.
Many Anglican conservatives felt emancipation undermined the established church and constitutional settlement. Peel’s pragmatism prioritised order in Ireland, but for traditionalists it symbolised a surrender to popular agitation and eroded party unity.
The Catholic Association mobilised mass support in Ireland through membership fees, parish networks, and rallies.
It funded legal challenges and backed candidates like O’Connell himself, who won election in County Clare in 1828 despite being barred from taking his seat.
This demonstrated that Catholics could command electoral majorities, creating a political crisis.
The Association’s pressure made continued exclusion unsustainable, forcing Wellington and Peel to act despite their personal reservations.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the Metropolitan Police established by Robert Peel as Home Secretary?
Mark scheme:
1829 = 2 marks
Any other date within the 1820s decade = 1 mark
Incorrect decade = 0 marks
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which the repeal of the Combination Laws (1824–1825) and the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828) reflected a shift in Tory policy during the 1820s.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explanation.
Candidates must identify and explain the significance of each reform in the context of changing Tory attitudes.
Combination Laws (maximum 3 marks):
Identifying that the Combination Acts (1799–1800) banned trade unions and collective bargaining (1 mark).
Repeal in 1824 legalised unions, reflecting a more liberal response to working-class pressure (1 mark).
The 1825 amendment restricted union power again, showing compromise but still recognition of workers’ rights to organise (1 mark).
Test and Corporation Acts (maximum 3 marks):
Identifying that the Acts excluded Protestant Dissenters from public office (1 mark).
Repeal in 1828 widened religious toleration, marking a step away from Anglican monopoly (1 mark).
Reflected the government’s willingness to modernise legal restrictions and accommodate reform under pressure (1 mark).
Level of response guidance:
1–2 marks: Simple descriptive points, limited explanation.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how reforms reflected changing Tory policy, though may lack depth.
5–6 marks: Clear, developed explanations of both reforms, with explicit links to Tory policy change in the 1820s.
