OCR Specification focus:
‘Post-war economic conditions; the problems of the staple industries; economic unrest; the problems of the mining industry, the causes and failure of the General Strike.’
The interwar years in Britain were shaped by fragile recovery, economic dislocation, and mounting industrial tensions, culminating in the 1926 General Strike, a defining conflict of labour relations.
Post-War Economic Conditions
The end of the First World War in 1918 left Britain facing immense financial and industrial challenges. Though the country emerged victorious, the war had drained resources, expanded national debt, and undermined Britain’s global economic position.
Inflation and Debt
The war had cost Britain over £8 billion, forcing reliance on American loans. By 1919, inflation surged, eroding working-class living standards and fuelling demands for wage increases. Economic adjustment after the wartime boom saw industries contract, and unemployment began to rise significantly.
Declining International Competitiveness
Before 1914, Britain had been a world leader in shipping, finance, and manufacturing. After the war:
The United States and Japan expanded their industrial dominance.
British exports declined, unable to compete with modernised rivals.
Attempts to restore the Gold Standard in 1925 at pre-war parity made exports even less competitive, particularly from heavy industry.
Structural Weaknesses
Economic growth was concentrated in new sectors such as chemicals, automobiles, and electrical goods. However, these were limited compared to the scale of Britain’s traditional export industries. Regional disparities grew between prosperous areas in the South and Midlands and depressed northern and Welsh regions.
Staple Industries
Staple industries — coal, iron and steel, shipbuilding, and textiles — formed the backbone of Britain’s pre-war economy but entered steep decline in the 1920s.
Coal: Output fell as foreign competition grew. Mechanisation lagged behind other nations, and reliance on older pits made costs higher.
Shipbuilding: Pre-war global demand for British shipping collapsed as nations built their own fleets.
Textiles: Once a major employer in Lancashire and Yorkshire, the industry faced shrinking overseas markets, especially in India, which increasingly produced its own cloth.
Iron and Steel: Output stagnated, with foreign industries investing more heavily in new technologies.
Unemployment in these industries often exceeded 15–20% in the interwar period, leading to deep social discontent in affected communities.
Economic Unrest
High unemployment, falling wages, and regional depression created widespread economic unrest across Britain during the 1920s.
Strikes and Protests
Strikes became common as workers attempted to resist wage reductions and worsening working conditions. Trade unions grew in membership strength, uniting workers across industries. The Triple Alliance (miners, railwaymen, and transport workers) promised coordinated industrial action, though it often faltered in execution.
The Role of Trade Unions
By the 1920s, trade unions had millions of members. Their growing influence alarmed employers and the government, who feared revolutionary activity similar to events in Russia (1917). Nonetheless, most union action remained focused on protecting wages and working conditions rather than pursuing radical change.
Problems in the Mining Industry
Coal mining became the central battleground of industrial conflict.
Falling Demand: Global markets for coal contracted, with foreign producers offering cheaper supplies.
High Costs: British mines were inefficient, relying on outdated technology and deep pits that increased extraction costs.
Schematic cross-section of a coal mine showing shaft, galleries, and coal seams. This highlights the challenges of deep and costly extraction in interwar Britain. Some additional details, such as surface structures, are included but not required by the syllabus. Source
Employer Pressure: Mine owners sought wage cuts and longer hours to preserve profits.
Lockout: An action by employers in which workers are excluded from their workplace until they accept conditions, often used to force wage cuts or longer hours.
The miners’ slogan became “Not a penny off the pay, not a minute on the day,” highlighting their resistance to wage reductions and longer working hours.
The General Strike of 1926
The General Strike was the climax of interwar industrial unrest, representing the largest and most dramatic confrontation between organised labour and the state.
Causes
Mine owners’ insistence on reducing wages and increasing hours.
Collapse of government subsidies introduced in 1925 to maintain miners’ pay (the so-called “Red Friday”).
Failure of negotiations between the Trades Union Congress (TUC), miners, and government.
Course of Events
May 3rd 1926: The TUC called out key workers in transport, printing, and heavy industry in support of the miners.
Around 1.7 million workers joined the strike, though it remained peaceful and orderly in most areas.
The government, under Stanley Baldwin, mobilised volunteers and the army to maintain essential services.
Armoured cars patrol a London street during the 1926 General Strike. This illustrates the government’s determination to maintain order and services while key workers were striking. Source
TUC (Trades Union Congress): The national federation of trade unions in Britain, representing the collective strength of organised labour.
The press, controlled by government and employers, portrayed the strike as a revolutionary threat, further hardening public opposition.
Failure of the Strike
The TUC leadership feared escalation into violence and revolution.
Middle-class volunteerism and government preparedness weakened the strike’s impact.
Lack of coordination across industries reduced its effectiveness.
After nine days, on 12th May 1926, the strike was called off without securing concessions for miners.
Aftermath
Miners were left isolated and forced back to work under worse conditions.
Trade unions suffered a severe setback in prestige and legal restrictions soon followed, including the Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act (1927), which limited their ability to strike.
The strike revealed deep divisions between workers and the state, cementing the decline of staple industries and entrenching economic problems in mining communities.
FAQ
As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Churchill was closely involved in economic policy, including the controversial return to the Gold Standard in 1925. This policy harmed British exports, particularly coal, and worsened the financial position of the mining industry.
Churchill also edited the government’s newspaper, The British Gazette, during the strike, using it to present the strikers as a threat to national stability and reinforce the government’s authority.
On 31 July 1925, the government granted a nine-month subsidy to maintain miners’ wages after threatened industrial action. This became known as “Red Friday.”
Miners and the TUC viewed it as a victory against employers.
It increased confidence that industrial action could succeed.
However, it gave the government time to prepare for a future strike, ultimately undermining the unions’ position in 1926.
Public opinion was divided. Many middle-class citizens volunteered to run buses, deliver food, or maintain services, strengthening perceptions of unity against the strike.
The government’s portrayal of the strike as revolutionary won over much of the press and general public. As a result, sympathy for miners decreased, and trade unions were left politically weakened, seen by many as irresponsible for threatening national stability.
Yes, although miners were the core issue, other industries joined when called out by the TUC.
Transport workers, including railwaymen and bus drivers, struck, disrupting movement.
Printing workers walked out, affecting newspapers and communications.
Heavy industry such as steel and dock workers joined in solidarity.
However, not all industries joined, and the strike remained limited to selected sectors rather than a total national shutdown.
The Act was passed in direct response to the strike. It introduced restrictions that significantly reduced union influence.
General and sympathetic strikes were made illegal.
Civil service unions were banned from affiliating with the TUC.
Members had to “contract in” to pay the political levy, weakening Labour Party funding.
These measures curtailed organised labour’s ability to challenge employers or government through mass industrial action in future decades.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why the coal industry in Britain faced problems during the 1920s.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason, up to a maximum of 2.
Possible answers:Reliance on outdated technology and inefficient deep pits (1 mark)
Falling international demand and strong foreign competition (1 mark)
High extraction costs compared to other producers (1 mark)
Lack of mechanisation compared with rival industries (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the General Strike of 1926 failed.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements with limited development, e.g., “The strike failed because the government was strong.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Developed explanations with some supporting detail, e.g., “The strike failed because the government was well-prepared, using volunteers and the army to maintain services. The TUC also feared violence.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Fully developed explanation with multiple supported points, showing clear understanding, e.g., “The strike failed because the government was exceptionally well-prepared, mobilising volunteers and using propaganda to sway public opinion. The TUC leadership was cautious, fearing escalation into revolution, which led them to call off the strike after nine days. Lack of coordination across industries also limited its effectiveness.”
