OCR Specification focus:
‘The fall of Chamberlain and replacement by Churchill; the effects of the war on food, women, industry, health and housing.’
In 1940 Britain faced crisis: Chamberlain’s leadership collapsed, Churchill became Prime Minister, and wartime society was profoundly reshaped by shortages, mobilisation, and social change.
The Fall of Chamberlain
Political Failures and Loss of Confidence
By early 1940, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain faced increasing criticism for his policy of appeasement and failure to prepare Britain adequately for war. The disappointing campaign in Norway in April 1940 highlighted poor military planning and undermined his credibility. In the House of Commons, the famous Norway Debate (7–9 May 1940) revealed widespread dissatisfaction with Chamberlain’s leadership. Although he won the vote of confidence, the reduced majority demonstrated a significant collapse in parliamentary support.
The Search for Leadership
Chamberlain recognised that he could not command a strong wartime coalition. Lord Halifax, the Foreign Secretary, was considered as a possible replacement, but his position in the House of Lords and doubts over his willingness to lead a wartime government weakened his chances. The alternative was Winston Churchill, who had been brought back into government as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1939. Churchill’s reputation as a critic of appeasement and his determination to fight Germany resonated strongly with both Parliament and the public.
Churchill’s Appointment
On 10 May 1940, as Germany launched its offensive in Western Europe, Chamberlain resigned. George VI invited Churchill to form a government. Churchill’s energy, oratory, and clear commitment to total war provided a stark contrast to Chamberlain’s failed leadership. His appointment marked a decisive turning point in Britain’s wartime direction.
Churchill as Wartime Leader
The Wartime Coalition
Churchill established a coalition government, drawing members from across the political spectrum, including Labour and Liberal leaders. This unity was crucial in ensuring public support and political stability. Churchill himself assumed the role of Minister of Defence, centralising military strategy under his personal authority.
Leadership Qualities
Churchill’s defining strengths included:
Inspiring speeches that motivated the nation during its darkest hours.
Relentless energy and determination to resist German domination.
Hands-on leadership, often involving himself in military decisions and maintaining close communication with military chiefs.
Although criticised at times for his impulsive style, Churchill’s charisma and resolve played a key role in sustaining British morale.
Wartime Society: The Home Front
Food and Rationing
The German U-boat campaign against shipping threatened Britain’s food supplies. To ensure fairness and conserve resources, the government introduced rationing in January 1940, initially for butter, sugar, and bacon. Rationing was extended throughout the war to include meat, tea, and clothing. The Ministry of Food, led by Lord Woolton, promoted the “Dig for Victory” campaign, encouraging citizens to grow their own food.
A British wartime “Dig for Victory” poster urging households to grow vegetables to supplement rationed supplies. The campaign aimed to improve nutrition and conserve shipping space for essential war materials. The image reflects government-led mobilisation of civilians on the Home Front. Source
Despite shortages, nutrition generally improved, as diets became more balanced and accessible across classes.
Rationing: Government-controlled distribution of scarce goods, ensuring fair shares during wartime shortages.
The Role of Women
The war transformed the role of women in society. With millions of men enlisted, women were mobilised into essential roles:
Industry and munitions work under the Ministry of Labour’s direction.
Auxiliary military services, including the ATS (Auxiliary Territorial Service), WAAF (Women’s Auxiliary Air Force), and WRNS (Women’s Royal Naval Service).
Civil defence roles such as air raid wardens, nurses, and ambulance drivers.
The National Service Act (1941) made it compulsory for women aged 20–30 to undertake war work, marking the first time women were conscripted for national service.
An ATS recruitment poster declaring “A.T.S. the job for you!”, reflecting the drive to mobilise women for military support roles. Such imagery normalised women’s service in uniform while addressing acute wartime labour shortages. The content complements your discussion of women in industry and the auxiliaries. Source
While opportunities expanded, traditional attitudes persisted, with many women expected to return to domestic roles post-war.
Industry and Labour
Industrial mobilisation was vital for sustaining the war effort. The government controlled key sectors such as coal, steel, and shipbuilding. Factories were retooled for the production of aircraft, tanks, and weapons. The Ministry of Labour, led by Ernest Bevin, managed manpower through the Bevin Boys scheme, which conscripted young men into coal mining to ensure energy supplies. Although strikes and disputes occurred, overall production levels rose dramatically, reflecting the success of central planning and national mobilisation.
Health and Welfare
Wartime pressures placed strain on health services, but also exposed inequalities. The evacuation of children from cities revealed widespread malnutrition and poor living conditions among the working classes. Government schemes provided free school meals, milk, and vitamins to improve health. The Emergency Medical Service (EMS) coordinated hospitals, laying the foundations for post-war health reforms. Access to healthcare improved for many, especially the poorest, demonstrating the beginnings of a more inclusive welfare system.
Housing and Bombing
The Blitz from September 1940 devastated Britain’s cities, particularly London, Coventry, and Liverpool. Millions lost homes to bombing raids, leading to widespread housing shortages. Shelters such as the London Underground became symbols of civilian resilience. Reconstruction was limited during the war, but plans for post-war housing reform began to take shape. Government promises of improved living conditions helped maintain morale despite hardship.
Wartime Transformation
Chamberlain’s fall symbolised the collapse of old leadership, while Churchill’s rise marked the determination to resist Hitler. Wartime society was reshaped by rationing, women’s mobilisation, industrial effort, and the shared burdens of war. These experiences forged new expectations of government responsibility in welfare and social reform, laying the groundwork for Britain’s post-war settlement.
FAQ
Lord Halifax was Foreign Secretary and initially considered the natural successor to Chamberlain. However, his seat in the House of Lords limited his ability to lead debates in the Commons.
He was also reluctant to take on the premiership, favouring the possibility of negotiated peace with Germany. These factors, combined with Churchill’s reputation as a determined anti-appeaser, made Halifax unsuitable in the crisis context.
Churchill’s speeches were carefully crafted to combine realism with hope. He openly acknowledged Britain’s dangers while emphasising resilience.
Famous examples include:
“Blood, toil, tears and sweat” (May 1940) — stressing sacrifice.
“We shall fight on the beaches” (June 1940) — reinforcing defiance.
“Their finest hour” (June 1940) — framing Britain’s struggle as historic.
These speeches were broadcast on radio, making Churchill’s words accessible nationwide.
As Minister of Labour, Bevin directed manpower to vital industries and armed forces. He ensured that resources were allocated effectively through central planning.
Key contributions included:
Launching the Bevin Boys scheme, sending young men to coal mining.
Negotiating with trade unions to minimise strikes.
Expanding training schemes to adapt workers to war industries.
Bevin’s pragmatic leadership was crucial for sustaining production.
The Blitz not only destroyed homes but also disrupted routines and reshaped urban living.
Night-time sheltering in the Underground altered sleeping patterns.
Schools and workplaces were relocated or closed due to bomb damage.
Evacuation of children separated families for long periods.
Blackout regulations changed daily life, making nights dangerous but necessary for safety.
These shifts highlighted the extent of civilian mobilisation under wartime conditions.
The EMS, set up in 1939, coordinated hospitals across Britain during bombing raids. It improved efficiency by centralising emergency treatment and pooling resources.
For the first time, many working-class people accessed hospital care previously out of reach. This exposure demonstrated the need for a permanent, state-run health system.
The EMS became a key model for the National Health Service established in 1948.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Winston Churchill replace Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister, and what event on the same day highlighted the urgency of the leadership change?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year: 1940.
1 mark for correctly identifying the event: German offensive in Western Europe / German invasion of France and the Low Countries (10 May 1940).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which the Second World War affected women’s roles in Britain between 1940 and 1945.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explanation.
To achieve 3 marks, answers must clearly describe the way women’s roles changed and explain why this was significant.
Indicative content:
Women took on industrial and munitions work due to male conscription (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for describing nature of work, 1 mark for explaining importance to war effort).
Women joined auxiliary services such as the ATS, WAAF, and WRNS (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for describing roles, 1 mark for explaining their importance in freeing men for combat roles).
National Service Act 1941 made war work compulsory for women (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for describing the legislation, 1 mark for explaining significance as first conscription of women in Britain).
Maximum: 6 marks.
