OCR Specification focus:
‘Relations with and policies towards the USA and the USSR; Britain’s influence at the UN; nuclear policy.’
Britain’s foreign relations from 1951 to 1997 reflected a constant balancing act between close ties with the USA, complex dealings with the USSR, maintaining influence at the United Nations, and navigating the challenges of nuclear weapons and deterrence.
Relations with the United States
The ‘Special Relationship’
Britain’s ‘special relationship’ with the USA remained central to its foreign policy. This term referred to the close diplomatic, military, and cultural ties between the two nations, reinforced by shared language, history, and global interests.
Britain relied on US economic and military strength after the Second World War.
Cooperation included intelligence-sharing (e.g., the UKUSA Agreement of 1946, known today as the Five Eyes alliance).
British leaders from Churchill to Thatcher emphasised partnership with Washington to bolster Britain’s declining global power.
Areas of Cooperation
Cold War strategy: Joint efforts to counter Soviet influence, including NATO membership.
Map of Europe (1949–1990) shading NATO members and Warsaw Pact states, with neutral countries distinguished. The polarised geography illustrates the strategic context for Britain’s cooperation with the USA and its adversarial stance toward the USSR. Extra detail: neutral states are included to show the full European balance of power. Source
Nuclear cooperation: Agreements such as the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement allowed Britain access to American nuclear technology.
Conflicts: Britain often supported US military actions, though sometimes reluctantly, as seen with the Korean War (1950–53) and later with the First Gulf War (1991).
Sources of Tension
Suez Crisis (1956): US opposition to Britain’s intervention revealed the limits of the relationship and highlighted British decline as a global superpower.
Vietnam War (1960s–70s): Britain avoided direct military involvement, straining relations, though leaders offered diplomatic support.
Reagan–Thatcher era: Close ideological alignment in the 1980s reinforced ties, especially on free-market economics and anti-communist foreign policy.
Relations with the USSR
Early Cold War Context
Britain faced the challenge of managing relations with the Soviet Union, an adversary in the Cold War. While direct confrontation was avoided, tensions remained high.
Britain was a founding member of NATO (1949), committing to collective defence against Soviet aggression.
Soviet espionage in Britain, such as the Cambridge Spy Ring, deepened mistrust.
Periods of Détente and Tension
1950s–60s: Britain played a role in easing East–West tensions, supporting arms control talks while maintaining deterrence.
1970s détente: Under leaders like Harold Wilson, Britain encouraged dialogue with Moscow, though suspicion persisted.
1980s confrontation: The USSR condemned Britain’s hosting of US nuclear weapons and support for NATO missile deployments.
The collapse of the USSR in 1991 ended decades of rivalry, but Britain remained cautious about Russia’s future role.
Britain and the United Nations
Founding Role and Influence
Britain was a founding member of the United Nations (1945) and held a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, granting it veto power.
United Nations Security Council: The most powerful body of the UN, responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It includes five permanent members with veto rights (USA, USSR/Russia, UK, France, China).
Britain used this position to maintain global influence despite its reduced imperial power.
Engagement with the UN
Supported peacekeeping operations in places such as Cyprus (1964) and the Balkans (1990s).
Britain often aligned with the USA at the UN, particularly during Cold War debates.
At times, Britain’s imperial legacy complicated its credibility, as seen during the Suez Crisis when it faced condemnation at the UN.
Nuclear Policy
Development of Britain’s Nuclear Arsenal
Britain sought to maintain great power status by developing its own nuclear weapons.
First atomic bomb tested in 1952, making Britain the world’s third nuclear power.
Hydrogen bomb successfully tested in 1957.
Subsequent nuclear policy centred on retaining an independent deterrent while cooperating with the USA.
Nuclear deterrence: The strategy of discouraging attack by threatening devastating nuclear retaliation.
Shifts in Nuclear Strategy
1950s–60s: Development of homegrown nuclear systems (Blue Streak, Blue Steel) proved costly.
1962 Nassau Agreement: Secured American Polaris submarine-launched missiles for Britain, ensuring a reliable deterrent.
1980s Trident programme: Replaced Polaris with more advanced US-supplied systems, supported by Thatcher’s government.
Diagram showing external and cross-sectional views of the Trident II D5 submarine-launched ballistic missile, with basic dimensions. This visual clarifies the technology underpinning Britain’s sea-based nuclear deterrent. Extra detail: the image includes dimensional data not required by the syllabus but helpful for understanding scale. Source
Nuclear disarmament debates: Groups like the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) challenged the morality and cost of nuclear weapons, especially during the 1980s.
Britain’s International Commitments
Signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), pledging not to spread nuclear weapons.
Balanced commitment to arms control with insistence on maintaining its independent deterrent.
The Themes
From 1951 to 1997, Britain’s global role was shaped by its special relationship with the USA, its complex Cold War stance towards the USSR, its status within the UN, and its determination to maintain an independent nuclear deterrent. These themes reflected both Britain’s continued influence and its limits as a middle-ranking power navigating the post-war world.
FAQ
British governments argued that an independent nuclear deterrent safeguarded Britain’s global influence, particularly given its reduced conventional military power after empire decline.
Leaders insisted nuclear weapons guaranteed Britain’s place among major world powers and ensured it had a voice in international diplomacy, especially within NATO and at the UN.
Britain contributed bases and strategic planning for the alliance, hosting American bombers and later cruise missiles.
RAF stations provided quick-strike capabilities in Europe.
The UK helped design NATO’s flexible response doctrine in the 1960s, balancing nuclear and conventional defence.
The veto allowed Britain to block motions contrary to Western interests, though it used the power sparingly compared to the USSR.
Britain often acted in tandem with the USA and France, reinforcing Western unity at the UN, while also using its seat to project continued status as a global power.
Hosting American systems like Thor missiles and later cruise missiles drew opposition.
Critics argued it compromised British sovereignty.
The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) staged mass protests, particularly at Greenham Common in the 1980s.
Many feared Britain could be targeted first in a nuclear war.
The treaty recognised Britain as a legitimate nuclear power, one of only five permanent members allowed nuclear weapons.
In return, Britain pledged not to assist proliferation and to pursue eventual disarmament. This both legitimised Britain’s arsenal and reassured allies and adversaries of its commitment to arms control.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Britain first successfully test an atomic bomb, making it the world’s third nuclear power?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the year as 1952.
1 additional mark for recognising that this placed Britain as the third country to develop nuclear weapons (after the USA and USSR).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which Britain’s relationship with the United States influenced its nuclear policy between 1951 and 1997.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each valid explanation, maximum 6 marks.
Award 1 mark for a valid point, 1 mark for elaboration, and 1 mark for contextual detail/example.
Examples of acceptable answers:
Britain signed the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement, allowing access to American nuclear technology (point, elaboration, example = 3 marks).
The 1962 Nassau Agreement gave Britain Polaris missiles, showing reliance on US support for its deterrent (point, elaboration, example = 3 marks).
Later, the 1980s Trident programme further demonstrated dependence on US-supplied systems, though Britain retained operational independence (can be credited as one of the two ways).
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