OCR Specification focus:
‘relations with Byzantium ; Divisio, death of’
Charlemagne’s relationship with the Byzantine Empire was complex, marked by rivalry, negotiation, and occasional reconciliation, reflecting the struggle over imperial legitimacy and territorial ambitions.
The Frankish–Byzantine Context
Charlemagne’s reign coincided with a period of significant transition in Byzantium, where the empire’s power and influence fluctuated under different emperors. The Byzantine rulers considered themselves the sole heirs of the Roman Empire, while Charlemagne’s expanding Frankish realm increasingly challenged this claim.
The coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans in 800 by Pope Leo III created a direct clash of legitimacy with Byzantium. From the Byzantine perspective, this act usurped their authority, as they viewed the Roman imperial title as inseparably theirs. This issue shaped diplomatic and territorial interactions throughout Charlemagne’s later reign.
Early Tensions after the Coronation
The Byzantine Objection
The Byzantines rejected the idea that Charlemagne could be a legitimate emperor, branding him a barbarian king without ties to Rome.
Empress Irene of Athens, who ruled Byzantium in 800, had seized power by deposing her son Constantine VI, creating uncertainty in the imperial succession.
Some sources suggest there were rumours of a proposed marriage alliance between Charlemagne and Irene, which, if realised, might have united East and West, but it never materialised.
Gold solidus showing the co-rule of Constantine VI and Irene, both depicted in imperial regalia. The coin reinforces Byzantine claims to Roman legitimacy before Charlemagne’s coronation. Source
Diplomatic Strains
Charlemagne attempted to assert his authority in Italy, particularly in areas still claimed by Byzantium, such as parts of southern Italy and the Dalmatian coast. These overlapping interests made confrontation likely. However, direct conflict remained limited, with both sides often preferring diplomacy to open warfare.
Territorial Rivalries
Italy
Byzantium still controlled Venice, parts of southern Italy, and the Dalmatian coast. Charlemagne’s conquest of the Lombards in 774 placed the Franks in direct proximity to these Byzantine possessions.
In 787, Byzantium launched an expedition to reclaim influence in Italy but failed to make major gains.
Charlemagne strengthened his control over the Lombard territories, reducing Byzantine influence.
The Adriatic and Dalmatia
Charlemagne’s fleets sought to establish dominance in the Adriatic Sea, clashing with Byzantine naval power. Dalmatian coastal cities often shifted allegiance depending on which power offered greater protection or autonomy.
These tensions highlighted the difficulty of maintaining stable control in contested frontier regions where local rulers sought to exploit the rivalry.
Attempts at Reconciliation
Negotiations with Irene
In the aftermath of Charlemagne’s coronation, negotiations with Byzantium attempted to reduce tensions. Irene’s rule weakened Byzantine prestige, and some advisers saw accommodation with the Franks as necessary. However, these talks achieved little lasting impact.
Recognition of Charlemagne’s Title
A breakthrough came under Emperor Michael I Rangabe (811–813). After years of tension, Byzantium formally recognised Charlemagne’s imperial title in 812, though with limits:
Charlemagne was recognised as Emperor, but not as “Emperor of the Romans,” which remained the Byzantine claim.
Byzantium insisted on its primacy, while Charlemagne’s status was framed as ruler of the Franks and of the West.
This recognition was a significant diplomatic victory for Charlemagne, consolidating his imperial image across Europe.
Gold solidus minted under Michael I Rangabe and his son Theophylaktos, reinforcing Byzantine imperial legitimacy during the 812 diplomatic settlement. The coin contextualises the recognition of Charlemagne’s imperial role in the West while Byzantium preserved its claim as sole Roman emperor. Source
The Divisio and Succession Issues
Charlemagne’s settlement with Byzantium was linked to broader concerns about imperial continuity.
Divisio: The planned division of Charlemagne’s empire among his sons to secure succession and stability.
Charlemagne’s Divisio Regnorum (division of the kingdoms) in 806 distributed his territories among his three sons: Charles the Younger, Pippin, and Louis. Byzantium monitored these developments closely, since the succession of multiple heirs could weaken Frankish unity and reduce the threat to Byzantine lands.
The deaths of Charles (811) and Pippin (810) left only Louis the Pious as heir. This shift simplified succession but also raised uncertainty about future Frankish–Byzantine relations.
The Death of Charlemagne and Byzantine Implications
Charlemagne’s death in 814 marked a turning point. Byzantium cautiously welcomed the transition, as Louis was perceived as less aggressive in foreign policy than his father. However, Charlemagne’s legacy of rivalry and uneasy diplomacy with Byzantium continued to shape East–West relations for decades.
The empire he created challenged Byzantine supremacy, redefining Western Europe’s relationship with the East. Though never resolved, the recognition of Charlemagne’s title in 812 established a precedent for dual imperial authority — a Western emperor alongside the Byzantine emperor — that continued to influence medieval politics.
Methods of Diplomacy and Control
Charlemagne’s approach to Byzantium was not purely martial but involved careful use of diplomacy:
Envoys and embassies were regularly exchanged to negotiate treaties and recognition.
Marriage alliances were explored, though never finalised.
Naval power in the Adriatic was used as a bargaining tool to pressure Byzantine concessions.
This blend of military pressure and diplomatic compromise exemplifies Charlemagne’s wider methods of rule.
Map of the Byzantine Empire shortly after Charlemagne’s coronation in 800, highlighting contested regions such as Italy, Venice, and Dalmatia. This geographic context clarifies the frontier zones central to Frankish–Byzantine negotiations. Source
FAQ
The Byzantine emperors claimed to be the sole basileus ton Rhōmaiōn (Emperor of the Romans), linking their rule to unbroken Roman continuity.
Charlemagne’s coronation threatened this monopoly. Recognition in 812 allowed him the title of emperor, but not “of the Romans.” This compromise highlighted the enduring symbolic weight of Roman identity and the unwillingness of Byzantium to share it.
Yes. By 812, Byzantium was weakened by wars with the Bulgars and internal instability. Recognition helped secure a more stable western frontier.
The treaty also protected Byzantine control over important coastal cities and upheld their primary imperial title. While it conceded Charlemagne’s authority in the West, it bought Byzantium valuable breathing space during a period of vulnerability.
Irene’s authority was contested because she had deposed her son Constantine VI, which some in Byzantium viewed as illegitimate. This weakened her ability to negotiate from a position of strength.
Her gender also mattered: as a female ruler, Irene was sometimes dismissed by contemporaries as unfit for sole imperial power. This unusual circumstance partly explains why some considered Charlemagne’s coronation more acceptable, since it contrasted with what was seen as an unorthodox Byzantine situation.
Venice was strategically placed between Frankish and Byzantine spheres of influence. Both powers sought its loyalty due to its naval resources and valuable trade networks.
The Venetians often shifted allegiance depending on which side offered more favourable conditions. Their autonomy meant that control over Venice remained contested, fuelling tensions even after Charlemagne’s recognition in 812.
The Byzantines had long experience of Mediterranean naval warfare and well-established fleets. This allowed them to check Frankish attempts at dominance in Dalmatia.
Byzantine ships controlled key sea routes and coastal cities.
Frankish forces struggled to match this naval capacity, limiting their influence.
As a result, diplomacy became more important than warfare in securing arrangements with Byzantium.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Who was the Byzantine emperor that formally recognised Charlemagne’s imperial title in 812?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying Michael I Rangabe.
1 additional mark for specifying the year of recognition (812).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why relations between Charlemagne and Byzantium were tense after his coronation in 800.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason, maximum 6 marks.
Indicative content may include:
Imperial legitimacy: Charlemagne’s coronation by Pope Leo III in 800 challenged Byzantine claims to be the sole heirs of Rome. (1–3 marks depending on detail and explanation).
Territorial rivalry: Disputes in Italy, Venice, and the Dalmatian coast brought the two powers into direct competition. (1–3 marks depending on detail and explanation).
Other valid points may be credited, such as naval conflict in the Adriatic or Byzantine refusal to acknowledge Charlemagne’s title initially.
To gain full marks, answers must go beyond simple statements and provide clear explanation of why each factor created tension.
