The reign of Khubilai Khan represented both the height of Mongol imperial power and the onset of significant limitations. As khagan, he wielded authority over a vast empire stretching across Asia, yet his power was challenged by practical constraints, regional autonomy, and the sheer diversity of his dominions. The extent of Mongol control by 1294 revealed both remarkable cohesion and growing fissures within the system of rule.

Khubilai Khan as Khagan

The Title of Khagan

Khubilai inherited the supreme title of Great Khan (Khagan) in 1260, following the Toluid civil war. This positioned him as the theoretical ruler of all Mongol dominions, from the Golden Horde in Russia to the Ilkhanate in Persia and the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia.

Although the title conferred supreme legitimacy, it did not automatically guarantee effective control. By Khubilai’s reign, the empire was already fragmenting into semi-autonomous units.

Limitations of Authority

Khubilai’s practical power as khagan was restricted by geography and politics:

• The enormous size of the empire made direct governance impossible.

• The steppe aristocracy increasingly resisted centralised Yuan policies.

• Communication across thousands of miles was slow, despite innovations like the yam (postal relay system).

• Rival claimants in the Chagatai and Golden Horde regions undermined his supremacy.

Thus, while Khubilai was acknowledged as khagan, his actual influence was strongest in China and Mongolia, rather than the whole empire.

Internal Weaknesses of Khubilai’s Khaganate

Dependence on the Yuan Dynasty

Khubilai focused heavily on consolidating rule in China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). This brought him enormous prestige, wealth, and administrative strength, but it also tied his power base to China rather than the traditional Mongol heartlands. This reliance caused tensions with other Mongol rulers, who saw him as overly “sinicised” and detached from the steppe way of life.

Strains with Other Khanates

The other khanates increasingly acted as independent states:

• Golden Horde: Controlled Russia and parts of Eastern Europe. Although nominally recognising Khubilai, it often ignored Yuan directives.

• Chagatai Khanate: Located in Central Asia, it resisted Yuan influence and challenged Khubilai’s appointees.

• Ilkhanate: Based in Persia, it was usually cooperative but prioritised its own dynastic and religious policies.

By the late 13th century, Khubilai’s khaganate had become symbolic rather than administrative.

The Golden Horde by 1294

Extent of Power

The Golden Horde, established by Batu Khan, dominated the western frontier of the Mongol Empire.

Locator map highlighting the Golden Horde across the Eurasian steppe, clarifying its geographic span over the Rus’ lands and steppe zones. Source

Its control extended over:

• Russia: Principalities such as Novgorod, Vladimir, and Kiev paid tribute.

• Eastern Europe: Raids into Poland and Hungary demonstrated military reach.

• Steppe territories: Kazakhstan and parts of Siberia.

The Horde’s wealth derived from tribute systems, trade routes, and control of nomadic pastures.

Relations with Khubilai

While Khubilai was khagan, the Golden Horde pursued its own policies:

• It often cooperated with the Ilkhanate’s rivals, worsening Mongol disunity.

• Leaders like Berke Khan converted to Islam and prioritised religious legitimacy over Yuan connections.

• Its political and cultural orientation shifted increasingly toward Islamic civilisation, distancing it from the Sinicised Yuan court.

Thus, by 1294, the Golden Horde was effectively autonomous.

The Chagatai Khanate by 1294

Geographical and Political Context

The Chagatai Khanate, centred in Central Asia, controlled the Silk Road routes that connected China, Persia, and the West.

High-resolution map of the Chagatai Khanate circa 1300, showing its Central Asian heartlands along key overland routes. Source

This made it strategically vital but also fiercely contested.

Relations with the Khagan

The Chagatai Khanate often rejected Khubilai’s supremacy:

• Khubilai’s attempts to appoint governors met resistance.

• Its rulers emphasised steppe traditions, resisting Chinese-influenced Yuan policies.

• Frequent succession struggles weakened its internal cohesion, limiting Khubilai’s ability to exert real authority.

By 1294, Chagatai was an independent power in all but name.

The Ilkhanate by 1294

Formation and Character

The Ilkhanate, founded by Hulegu in Persia, controlled Iran, Iraq, and parts of Anatolia. It combined Mongol military strength with Persian bureaucratic traditions, creating a unique hybrid administration.

Relations with the Yuan

The Ilkhans were generally the most cooperative of the western khanates:

• They acknowledged Khubilai as khagan.

• Trade links between Persia and China flourished under their rule.

• Cultural exchanges, including the transmission of Islamic science and medicine, enriched both regions.

Despite this, the Ilkhanate pursued autonomous diplomacy, especially in its conflicts with the Golden Horde and alliances with European powers against the Mamluks.

Broader Implications of Khubilai’s Limitations

Fragmentation of Authority

By the time of Khubilai’s death in 1294, the Mongol Empire was divided into four major khanates:

Topographic map labelling the Great Khanate (Yuan), Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, and Kipchak/Golden Horde, illustrating the political fragmentation underpinning Khubilai’s limitations as khagan. Source

• Yuan Dynasty in China.

• Golden Horde in Russia and the steppes.

• Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia.

• Ilkhanate in Persia.

All four shared Mongol heritage but followed divergent paths in governance, religion, and culture.

The Symbolic Nature of the Khaganate

Khubilai’s reign highlighted the limits of the khagan title:

• It retained ideological weight, providing a symbolic link to Genghis Khan’s legacy.

• In practice, however, each khanate pursued its own regional interests.

• This decentralisation laid the groundwork for the eventual decline of Mongol power across Eurasia.

By 1294, the empire was less a unified political entity and more a collection of loosely connected Mongol states, bound together by tradition rather than effective central rule.