Introduction
The late medieval Iberian Peninsula was a complex society marked by religious coexistence and conflict. The Reconquista and debates over la convivencia shaped Spain’s identity.

La Convivencia

Definition and Origins

La convivencia is often presented as an era of cultural and intellectual flourishing where different faiths interacted. It is associated particularly with Al-Andalus, the Muslim-ruled territories of the Iberian Peninsula, which by the High Middle Ages had produced centres of learning such as Córdoba and Toledo. Here, translation schools brought Greek, Arab, and Jewish scholarship into contact with Latin Christendom.

Features of Coexistence

• Religious tolerance (limited): Muslims, Christians, and Jews were recognised under Islamic law as dhimmi (protected peoples), but paid special taxes and had social restrictions.

• Intellectual exchange: Jewish and Muslim philosophers such as Maimonides and Averroes influenced European scholasticism.

• Urban multiculturalism: Cities like Toledo had significant populations from all three religions.

• Economic cooperation: Jews often acted as financiers, administrators, and translators for both Muslim and Christian rulers.

Despite this apparent harmony, convivencia was fragile. Periodic outbreaks of violence, forced conversions, and legal inequalities meant that coexistence was never one of complete equality.

Critiques of the Concept

Modern historians question whether convivencia was truly harmonious or instead a pragmatic arrangement. While it fostered intellectual and cultural contact, it was underpinned by hierarchies and intermittent persecution.

The Reconquista

Definition

By the late fifteenth century, the Reconquista had become central to Christian identity in Spain, tying together military, political, and religious goals.

A labelled map of the Emirate of Granada showing Nasrid territory and the dates of surrounding conquests. It visualises the shrinking frontier that led to the 1492 capture. Source

Key Stages

• Early campaigns (11th–13th centuries): The Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, and Portugal gradually pushed southwards, capturing major cities such as Toledo (1085), Córdoba (1236), and Seville (1248).

• Late medieval consolidation: By the mid-13th century, only the Emirate of Granada remained under Muslim rule.

• Final conquest (late 15th century): Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs, launched the decisive campaign against Granada, which culminated in 1492.

Religious and Political Motivations

The Reconquista was justified as both a defensive war and a sacred struggle. Popes granted indulgences to fighters, treating Iberian campaigns as equivalent to crusades in the Holy Land. For Ferdinand and Isabella, the Reconquista also offered:

• An opportunity to assert their authority over the nobility.

• A means of presenting themselves as champions of Christianity.

• A path to unification of Spain under a single faith.

Methods of Expansion

• Military conquest: Use of artillery and siege warfare, especially in the Granada War (1482–1492).

• Settlement policies: Land was redistributed to nobles and military orders, strengthening loyalty to the crown.

• Religious institutions: Churches and monasteries were established to replace mosques, signalling Christian dominance.

The Capture of Granada (1492)

Campaign and Symbolism

The final stage of the Reconquista was the Granada War (1482–1492). Granada had survived for centuries through diplomacy, tribute payments, and internal divisions within Christian kingdoms. However, under the Catholic Monarchs:

• A long siege strategy was implemented.

• Superior artillery gave Castile and Aragon the edge.

• Internal factionalism within Granada weakened its resistance.

In January 1492, the last Muslim ruler, Boabdil (Muhammad XII), surrendered the city. The event was celebrated as a monumental triumph of Christianity, earning Ferdinand and Isabella the title of ‘The Catholic Kings’ from the Pope.

Terms of Surrender

The Treaty of Granada initially guaranteed religious freedom for Muslims, protection of property, and the right to continue Islamic practices. However, these terms were soon undermined:

• By the late 1490s, pressure for conversion increased.

• Revolts, such as the Alpujarras rising, were met with force.

• Muslims who remained were known as Moriscos (Muslim converts to Christianity), often under suspicion of insincerity.

Relationship Between La Convivencia and the Reconquista

Transition from Coexistence to Intolerance

The fall of Granada marked a turning point from limited religious pluralism to enforced Catholic uniformity. The ideals of convivencia gave way to suspicion of non-Christians:

• Jews faced increasing persecution, leading to the Expulsion Edict of 1492.

• Conversos (Jewish converts to Christianity) were investigated by the Inquisition.

• Moriscos were subjected to restrictions and forced assimilation.

Broader Significance

• Ideological unity: The Reconquista reinforced the concept of Spain as a Catholic nation.

• Political centralisation: Victory enhanced royal authority, consolidating Isabella and Ferdinand’s power.

• Cultural impact: While convivencia ended formally, its earlier legacy of intellectual exchange had already enriched European thought.

Thus, the interplay of convivencia and Reconquista is central to understanding the transformation of Spain under the Catholic Monarchs, as they shifted from pluralism to religious uniformity.