OCR Specification focus:
‘William’s diplomacy in Scotland (King Malcolm, homage, the treaty of 1091, Malcolm’s death); the Northumbrian campaigns (1092 and 1094); William’s invasion of Wales (1095 and 1097)’
William II’s campaigns in Scotland and Wales reflected his broader aims to consolidate Norman authority across Britain and to secure England’s vulnerable frontiers from external threats.
William’s Diplomacy in Scotland
King Malcolm III and Anglo-Scottish Relations
William II inherited a tense relationship with King Malcolm III of Scotland, who had previously invaded northern England during William I’s reign.
Malcolm’s ambitions to extend his influence into Northumbria and Cumbria challenged Norman control in the north.
In 1091, after initial hostilities, William mobilised forces for a northern campaign, compelling Malcolm to negotiate.
The Treaty of 1091
The resulting Treaty of 1091 was a key moment in William’s Scottish policy.
Malcolm performed homage to William II, acknowledging him as overlord, though the exact terms of territorial concessions remain debated by historians.
This act of homage was politically significant, signalling a temporary peace and William’s diplomatic success without prolonged warfare.
Breakdown of Relations and Malcolm’s Death
Despite the treaty, tensions soon resurfaced.
In 1093, disputes over the treaty’s interpretation and territorial boundaries reignited conflict.
Malcolm invaded Northumberland, but was ambushed and killed at the Battle of Alnwick in November 1093.
Malcolm’s Cross commemorates the death of King Malcolm III at Alnwick in 1093, a turning point in Anglo-Scottish relations during William II’s reign. As an eighteenth-century monument, it reflects later commemoration rather than eleventh-century material culture. The dating of the memorial itself is extra context not required by the syllabus. Source
His death destabilised Scotland, initiating a succession crisis which William attempted to exploit to England’s advantage.
The Northumbrian Campaigns (1092 and 1094)
The Campaign of 1092
Northumbria was strategically vital as a buffer zone against Scottish incursions.
In 1092, William led a major campaign to seize Carlisle and the surrounding district of Cumbria.
Carlisle Castle, viewed across the outer works, illustrates the frontier fortress that secured the north-west after William II’s 1092 campaign. The later stone keep visible today dates from the twelfth century, but the site reflects William’s consolidation of the border. Extra architectural detail post-dating 1092 is visible but not required by the syllabus. Source
Carlisle was fortified with new Norman defences, and William installed a garrison, marking the permanent extension of Norman rule into the region.
This occupation both secured the western approach to Northumbria and asserted dominance over disputed borderlands.
The Campaign of 1094
Conflict in the north was not limited to Scotland.
In 1094, unrest in Northumbria required another royal intervention.
William marched north to reassert authority, but poor weather and logistical challenges hampered operations, leading to limited direct confrontation.
Nonetheless, the display of force reinforced Norman presence in the region.
William’s Invasion of Wales (1095 and 1097)
Background to Welsh Campaigns
The Norman advance into Wales had begun under William I but was incomplete by 1087.
Wales was politically fragmented into rival kingdoms, making it vulnerable yet also resistant due to its geography and local alliances.
William II sought both to expand territory and to deter Welsh raids into the Marches.
The 1095 Campaign
In 1095, William launched a large-scale expedition into Wales in response to local uprisings and border instability.
Wales c.1093, showing major kingdoms and regions relevant to William II’s campaigns. The map situates the Marches and the rugged heartlands where Norman forces struggled. Extra territorial detail beyond 1095–1097 is included only to clarify political context. Source
Despite assembling a substantial army, the campaign achieved little due to guerrilla tactics employed by the Welsh and the difficult mountainous terrain.
The expedition underscored the challenges of campaigning in Wales, where Norman heavy cavalry was less effective.
The 1097 Campaign
A renewed campaign in 1097 followed continuing Welsh resistance.
William’s forces again struggled to secure lasting control, facing supply shortages and effective Welsh hit-and-run tactics.
While castles and fortified positions were established in border areas, deep penetration into the heart of Wales remained elusive.
Key Features of William II’s Frontier Policy
Military and Diplomatic Balance
William II’s approach combined direct military action with strategic diplomacy.
Diplomacy in Scotland through homage and treaties provided temporary stability but required readiness to respond to renewed hostilities.
Military intervention in Wales demonstrated determination but also exposed the limitations of Norman warfare in rugged terrain.
Use of Fortifications
Fortifications were a central element in consolidating gains:
Carlisle in Cumbria became a vital northern stronghold.
In the Welsh Marches, castles acted as both defensive outposts and symbols of Norman authority.
Strategic Outcomes
By the end of the 1090s:
Norman control of Cumbria and fortified Carlisle strengthened England’s northern defences.
Scotland remained a neighbour under intermittent pressure but without decisive subjugation.
Welsh campaigns yielded limited territorial expansion but reinforced Norman dominance along the border.
Definition of Key Term
Homage: A formal public acknowledgment by a vassal of allegiance and loyalty to their lord, often involving an oath and ceremonial submission.
William II’s campaigns in Scotland and Wales illustrate the complexities of frontier politics in the late 11th century, where military might, political negotiation, and geographic realities all shaped the extent of Norman power.
FAQ
Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy and William II’s elder brother, was largely preoccupied with continental affairs during this period and had minimal direct influence on Scottish policy. However, his political rivalry with William meant the king was cautious about leaving England vulnerable while campaigning in the north. This shaped William’s preference for swift diplomacy, such as the Treaty of 1091, rather than prolonged Scottish wars that might allow Robert to exploit any absence.
Carlisle’s occupation extended Norman control into a region previously contested by Scotland.
The new fortifications acted as a base for projecting military power west of the Pennines.
Control over Carlisle also disrupted Scottish access to Cumbrian resources and trade routes.
This shift reduced Scottish influence in the western frontier, making it harder for them to coordinate incursions into Northumbria.
Norman supply lines struggled to function in the mountainous terrain of central and north Wales.
Road networks were limited, and the weather often made movement slow or impossible.
The Welsh use of surprise attacks forced the Normans to disperse troops to protect baggage trains, further weakening their main force. These issues meant large armies could not be sustained deep in Welsh territory, limiting the scope of operations.
Malcolm’s death in 1093 triggered a Scottish succession dispute between his sons and rival claimants.
William used this instability to influence Scottish politics, backing claimants more likely to accept Norman overlordship. This indirect approach reduced the need for costly campaigns, allowing William to focus resources on other fronts, including Wales and internal governance.
Wales was divided into several kingdoms — Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth among them — each with its own rulers and rivalries.
William attempted to exploit these divisions by allying with certain rulers against others, aiming to prevent a united Welsh resistance. While this occasionally yielded short-term gains along the Marches, the shifting nature of Welsh alliances often undermined the durability of such arrangements.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did William II seize Carlisle during his campaign in the north?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for correctly identifying 1092.
No marks for incorrect years or vague answers such as "the early 1090s".
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two reasons why William II’s campaigns in Wales between 1095 and 1097 achieved limited success.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 5 marks:
1 mark per valid reason identified (max 2 reasons = 2 marks).
Up to 1 additional mark for each reason explained in context (max 2 reasons = 2 marks).
1 further mark for overall understanding, such as linking both reasons to the broader challenges of campaigning in Wales.
Indicative content:
Reason: Difficult mountainous terrain (1 mark). Explanation: This hindered Norman heavy cavalry and restricted movement, reducing the ability to sustain deep campaigns (1 mark).
Reason: Welsh guerrilla tactics (1 mark). Explanation: Hit-and-run attacks undermined Norman supply lines and forced withdrawal (1 mark).
Overall understanding: These factors together meant William’s campaigns were unable to secure lasting control beyond the Marches (1 mark).
