Philip II’s foreign policy demonstrates both bold military ambition and delicate diplomacy, combining defence of Catholicism with strategic interests against Ottoman, English, French, and Portuguese rivals.

The Holy League and Mediterranean Context

Formation of the Holy League

Philip II inherited a Mediterranean world threatened by the Ottoman Empire and its allies, the Barbary Corsairs. By the mid-1560s, Ottoman naval power dominated the eastern Mediterranean, raising concerns for Spain’s vulnerable possessions in Naples, Sicily, and along the North African coast. In response to this pressure, Philip II encouraged the creation of the Holy League in 1570, a Catholic coalition designed to halt Ottoman expansion.

• Members included: Spain, Venice, and the Papacy under Pope Pius V.

• The League combined Spanish naval forces with Venetian ships and Papal support.

• Its aim was both religious — defending Christendom — and strategic — protecting Mediterranean trade and Spanish imperial possessions.

The Holy League was therefore both a crusading venture and a geopolitical alliance, aligning with Philip’s vision of himself as a defender of Catholicism.

The Battle of Lepanto, 1571

The Battle of Lepanto was fought on 7 October 1571 in the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece.

The combined fleet of the Holy League, commanded by Don John of Austria (Philip II’s half-brother), engaged the Ottoman navy in what became the largest naval battle of the sixteenth century. Source

• The League deployed over 200 galleys and several galleasses (large, heavily armed ships).

• Ottoman forces under Ali Pasha fielded a comparable fleet, confident in their dominance.

• The clash ended with a decisive victory for the Holy League, destroying or capturing over 200 Ottoman ships and freeing thousands of Christian galley slaves.

Though strategically limited — the Ottomans rebuilt their fleet quickly — Lepanto held immense propaganda value. It reinforced Philip’s role as champion of Christendom and enhanced Spain’s prestige across Catholic Europe.

Limitations of Lepanto

Despite its dramatic outcome, Lepanto did not permanently weaken the Ottoman Empire.

• By 1572, the Ottomans had rebuilt much of their navy.

• Venice sought peace in 1573, leaving Spain diplomatically isolated.

• The Mediterranean remained contested, though the battle secured the western Mediterranean from immediate Ottoman advance.

For Philip, Lepanto exemplified the tension between symbolic victory and long-term strategic gain.

Relations with England

Early Relations with Elizabeth I

Philip’s relationship with England was complex. As widower of Mary I of England, he initially maintained cordial ties with Elizabeth I after 1558. He even contemplated marriage to Elizabeth to preserve Anglo-Spanish friendship. However, religious and political tensions soon drove the two monarchs apart.

• Elizabeth’s support for Protestant rebels in the Netherlands undermined Spanish authority.

• English privateers, such as Francis Drake, attacked Spanish treasure fleets in the Atlantic.

• The religious divide — Catholic Spain versus Protestant England — became more pronounced after Elizabeth’s excommunication in 1570.

Towards Hostility

From the 1560s, Anglo-Spanish relations deteriorated steadily. By the time of Lepanto, Philip saw England as a potential ally of Protestant rebels and even of France.

• Philip initially avoided outright war, seeking to contain Protestantism diplomatically.

• However, English involvement in the Netherlands made conflict increasingly inevitable.

Relations with France

Traditional Rivalry

Spain’s relationship with France was shaped by longstanding rivalry. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars, establishing peace but not trust. France remained both a political competitor and a religiously unstable neighbour.

• During Philip’s reign, France was torn by its Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots.

• Philip supported French Catholic factions, fearing Protestant success would spill into the Netherlands.

• French instability distracted Philip from Mediterranean concerns, but also prevented France from acting as a united counterweight to Spain.

The French crown was thus both a potential ally and a persistent rival, depending on the shifting tides of civil conflict.

Relations with Portugal

Dynastic Ties and Strategic Importance

Philip also maintained close attention to Portugal, Spain’s western neighbour and maritime competitor.

• His first wife, Maria of Portugal, linked him dynastically to the Portuguese crown.

• Portugal’s overseas empire in Asia, Africa, and Brazil rivalled Spanish ambitions.

• For much of Philip’s reign, relations remained cautious but not hostile.

By 1580, following a dynastic crisis, Philip annexed Portugal outright (see later subsubtopics). However, during the Lepanto period, Spain’s focus was still on Ottoman and northern European threats.

The Interconnection of Mediterranean and European Policy

Philip’s foreign policy in the 1570s reveals the interconnected nature of Mediterranean and European priorities:

A 1570 map of Europe by Abraham Ortelius, contemporary with Philip II. It helps situate Spain, England, France, and Portugal within sixteenth-century geography relevant to diplomacy and conflict. Source

• Victory at Lepanto projected Catholic unity but lacked enduring strategic value.

• Relations with England deteriorated, paving the way for later direct conflict.

• Relations with France reflected the volatility of its religious wars.

• Relations with Portugal remained stable until dynastic opportunity emerged.

In this way, the Holy League’s triumph symbolised Philip’s leadership of Catholic Europe, while his diplomacy with England, France, and Portugal demonstrated the complexity of balancing crusading zeal with realpolitik.