Peter the Great’s reforms of the Church, army, and navy were essential to his wider project of modernising Russia, consolidating his power, and strengthening the state.

The Church under Peter the Great

Peter saw the Russian Orthodox Church as a potential threat to his authority and as an institution in need of reform to align with his modernising agenda. Traditionally, the Church had enjoyed substantial autonomy and influence, with the Patriarch acting almost as a rival figure to the Tsar in religious and moral authority.

Abolition of the Patriarchate

• In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter chose not to appoint a successor.

• Instead, he installed the Metropolitan of Ryazan as locum tenens (temporary head) and kept the Patriarchal seat vacant.

• This allowed Peter to bring the Church more firmly under state control.

The Holy Synod

• In 1721, Peter formally abolished the Patriarchate and replaced it with the Holy Synod, a council of bishops.

• The Synod was overseen by a lay official known as the Ober-Procurator, who acted as the Tsar’s representative.

• This reform transformed the Church into a department of the state rather than an independent power.

In 1721 Peter abolished the Patriarchate and created the Most Holy Governing Synod, supervised by an Ober-Procurator, to run the Church as a state department.

The Spiritual Regulation (1721) codified the creation of the Holy Synod, replacing patriarchal governance with collegiate rule under a lay Ober-Procurator, embedding state control of the Church. Source

Broader Religious Policy

• The clergy were subordinated to secular authority, with priests required to inform on confessions that suggested treason.

• Church landholdings were controlled more tightly, and revenues were channelled into state needs.

• Monasteries were restricted from accepting new monks without state approval, limiting the growth of religious communities.

The reform of the Church thus curtailed its independence, making it a tool of the Tsarist state and embedding it within the bureaucratic framework of Peter’s Russia.

Reform of the Army

The army was a central focus of Peter’s reforms, particularly after early defeats such as at Narva in 1700 during the Great Northern War. Russia’s military modernisation became both urgent and systematic.

Modernisation of Structure and Recruitment

• The traditional Streltsi regiments, often unreliable and politically dangerous, were dissolved following their revolt and destruction in 1698.

• Peter introduced a standing army built on regular service, trained along Western European lines.

• The 1716 Military Statute codified military organisation, discipline, and hierarchy, reflecting European influences.

Conscription and the Service State

• A system of compulsory military service was introduced for the nobility, requiring lifelong service to the state.

• In 1705, conscription of peasants and townsmen was formalised, with quotas imposed on communities.

Training and Equipment

• Foreign officers were recruited to train Russian troops in modern tactics.

• Artillery was greatly expanded and modernised, with new foundries producing cannon and muskets domestically.

Peter standardised weaponry around the flintlock musket and socket bayonet, embedding regular drill across the infantry and codifying practice in the Military Statute of 1716.

Diagram of a flintlock lockplate, showing how flint, frizzen, and pan interacted to fire reliably. Standardisation of such weapons was key to Russia’s military reform. Source

The reform of the army transformed Russia from a militarily backward state into a formidable European power, laying the groundwork for victories such as at the Battle of Poltava (1709).

Reform of the Navy

Peter’s obsession with the sea was a hallmark of his reign, rooted in his childhood fascination with ships. He considered a powerful navy essential for Russia’s security and international standing.

Origins of the Russian Navy

• The navy was first developed for campaigns against the Ottomans in the Azov campaigns of the 1690s.

• From these beginnings, Peter pursued the creation of a permanent, professional fleet.

Shipbuilding and Infrastructure

• Shipyards were established at Voronezh and later at St Petersburg, producing fleets modelled on Dutch and English designs.

• The navy expanded rapidly, boasting dozens of ships of the line and hundreds of smaller vessels by the 1720s.

Naval Command and Training

• Foreign expertise was again essential, with shipbuilders and officers brought in from Western Europe.

• A Naval Academy was founded in 1701 to train Russian officers in navigation, gunnery, and seamanship.

The reformed Baltic fleet centred on line-of-battle ships built to Western designs and trained through the Naval Academy (1701), supporting operations in the Baltic.

Model of an eighteenth-century ship-of-the-line, showing multiple gun decks and square-rigged masts. These ships were central to Peter’s Baltic fleet and Russia’s rise as a naval power. Source

The navy played a decisive role in the Great Northern War, ensuring Russian dominance in the Baltic and securing access to maritime trade routes.

Census of 1719

The census of 1719 was a crucial administrative reform that linked military and social policy.

Purpose of the Census

• It was designed to provide accurate information on the population for purposes of taxation and conscription.

• Instead of counting households, the census registered individuals, particularly peasants, tying them directly to the state’s fiscal and military needs.

Consequences

• The census enabled more effective and equitable tax collection, ensuring that state revenues increased to fund military expansion.

• It formalised the obligations of peasants to provide recruits for the army, embedding the service state more deeply in Russian society.

Interconnection of Reforms

Peter’s reforms of the Church, army, navy, and census were not isolated changes but parts of a single vision: strengthening the autocratic state, modernising Russian society, and securing Russia’s position as a European great power. These measures created lasting structural shifts in governance, society, and military capacity that defined Russia’s trajectory in the eighteenth century.