OCR Specification focus:
‘revolt and destruction of the Streltsi; the Old Believers’
The revolts of the Streltsi and the resistance of the Old Believers illustrate deep social and religious tensions in Russia, challenging Peter’s programme of westernisation.
The Streltsi and Their Role in Russia
The Streltsi were a corps of elite musketeers established in the mid-16th century under Ivan IV. They became both a military force and a political faction, heavily involved in court intrigue.
Streltsi: Elite Russian musketeers founded under Ivan IV, acting as both a military force and a political pressure group, often intervening in succession disputes.
By the 17th century, the Streltsi had become increasingly conservative and resistant to reform. They resented the emergence of new, more disciplined regiments trained in Western European style, which Peter the Great supported. Their role in protecting Moscow gave them significant political leverage, and they often acted as kingmakers.
Side-by-side cases contrast Strelets equipment with that of a “new order” infantryman. The display highlights the technological and stylistic gap that undermined Streltsi status. Source
The Streltsi Revolt of 1698
The Streltsi Revolt of 1698 occurred while Peter was abroad on the Grand Embassy to the West. The causes of the uprising included:
Discontent at declining status and privileges.
Hostility towards the modernisation of the army.
Opposition to Peter’s increasing influence and absence from Moscow.
A desire to restore the regency of Sophia Alekseyevna, Peter’s half-sister.
The revolt was crushed with ruthless severity. Upon returning, Peter ordered mass executions, torture, and exile.
Vasily Surikov’s painting depicts the public execution of Streltsy after the failed 1698 uprising. It conveys the state’s power and the archers’ distinctive appearance. Source
Consequences of the Revolt
The destruction of the Streltsi was a decisive turning point in Russian governance:
Military consequences: Peter removed a destabilising force, allowing him to build a modern, professional army.
Political consequences: The last significant armed challenge to autocracy from a military elite was eliminated.
Psychological consequences: Peter’s brutality demonstrated the extent of his determination to suppress opposition.
Symbolism: Executions were staged as a warning to others resisting reform.
The removal of the Streltsi reinforced Peter’s absolute authority, paving the way for unimpeded westernisation.
The Old Believers and the Schism
The Old Believers were a religious group that emerged in opposition to Patriarch Nikon’s reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church in the mid-17th century.
Old Believers: A faction of Russian Orthodox Christians who rejected the reforms of Patriarch Nikon in the 1650s, adhering to older rituals and practices.
These reforms included changes to liturgical texts, the sign of the cross, and other practices to align Russian worship with Greek Orthodox models. While seemingly minor, they provoked fierce resistance among traditionalists who believed such reforms were heretical.
Persecution under Peter the Great
Peter inherited this religious division and escalated persecution of the Old Believers. His reasons were both religious and political:
They represented defiance against central authority, rejecting state-imposed orthodoxy.
They resisted westernising influences, aligning themselves with older Muscovite traditions.
They were socially significant, drawing support from merchants, peasants, and some boyars.
Persecution included:
Fines and taxes levied on Old Believer communities.
Exile and imprisonment for clergy and lay leaders.
Forced conversions and executions for refusal to conform.
Restrictions on publishing and worship.
Despite this, the movement survived underground and in remote areas, sustaining a parallel religious identity.
Broader Impact of Old Believer Resistance
The Old Believers symbolised deep cultural resistance to Peter’s modernisation:
Their survival demonstrated limits to the Tsar’s ability to control religious life.
Their economic role (especially in trade and craftsmanship) meant persecution carried costs for the state.
They became a long-lasting opposition force, continuing well into the 18th and 19th centuries.
The endurance of the Old Believers highlighted that, while Peter could crush military opposition like the Streltsi, he could not fully eradicate religious dissent.
Comparison of Streltsi and Old Believers
Although distinct in nature, both groups represented conservative resistance to Peter’s reforms:
Streltsi: A military elite, politically active, but ultimately destroyed by brutal force.
Old Believers: A religious movement, decentralised, and able to endure persecution.
Key similarities:
Both opposed westernisation and sought to maintain traditional Muscovite ways.
Both became symbols of resistance to Peter’s authority.
Key differences:
The Streltsi posed an immediate military threat to Peter’s regime, necessitating violent suppression.
The Old Believers represented a long-term cultural and religious challenge, harder to eliminate completely.
Legacy
The destruction of the Streltsi eliminated a destabilising faction, while the persecution of the Old Believers exposed the cultural rift between reformist autocracy and traditionalist society. Together, they reveal the dual fronts of opposition Peter faced — military rebellion and religious conservatism — and the differing strategies required to confront them.
FAQ
Although Sophia Alekseyevna was under house arrest after her failed regency, the Streltsi sought her return as a symbol of opposition to Peter. They believed she would halt military reforms and restore traditional Muscovite governance.
Her presence as a potential alternative to Peter gave the revolt political meaning, beyond simple dissatisfaction among soldiers.
Peter’s use of torture, public executions, and display of corpses echoed early modern European traditions of spectacle punishment. Such measures aimed to deter rebellion through fear.
However, the scale in Russia was unusually harsh. Thousands were executed or exiled, signalling Peter’s determination to eliminate any lingering military-political faction.
For the Old Believers, rituals such as making the sign of the cross with two fingers were sacred truths, not minor details. Altering them risked spiritual damnation.
They saw Patriarch Nikon’s reforms as betraying authentic Russian Orthodoxy by subordinating it to foreign (Greek) influences. Thus, resistance was framed as defending salvation, not just tradition.
Old Believers often thrived as merchants, craftsmen, and financiers, creating semi-autonomous communities.
They played a key role in regional trade, especially textiles and metalwork.
Their networks stretched across Russia, supporting underground publishing of religious texts.
Their economic activity provided stability for persecuted communities and allowed them to endure despite state repression.
The Streltsi had traditionally garrisoned Moscow, protecting the Kremlin and maintaining order. Their destruction left a vacuum in the capital’s defence.
Peter responded by reorganising urban security, relying increasingly on new regiments loyal to him. This also marked a shift away from semi-independent military corporations towards a centralised, professional army under direct state control.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one reason why the Streltsi revolted in 1698, and one way in which Peter the Great responded to the revolt.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for a valid reason for the revolt (e.g., decline in privileges/status, hostility to new Western-style regiments, desire to restore Sophia’s regency, discontent at Peter’s absence).
1 mark for a valid response by Peter (e.g., mass executions, torture, exile, disbanding of the corps).
Maximum 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how both the Streltsi and the Old Believers resisted Peter the Great’s reforms.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for explanation of the Streltsi’s resistance (e.g., their revolt in 1698 motivated by opposition to army modernisation, attempts to restore Sophia).
Up to 2 marks for explanation of the Old Believers’ resistance (e.g., rejection of Patriarch Nikon’s reforms, refusal to adopt new rituals, use of traditional two-finger cross).
Up to 2 marks for development of analysis (e.g., Streltsi as a direct military threat crushed by force, Old Believers as a long-term cultural challenge surviving despite persecution).
Maximum 6 marks.
