Humayun’s reign was marked by defeat, exile, and recovery. His political reliance on Persia and the Afghan challenge under Sher Shah defined the Mughal Empire’s survival.

Humayun’s Early Rule and Challenges

Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530 but lacked the firm authority and military prestige of his father. His rule was weakened by internal rivalries with his brothers and the powerful threat of Afghan resurgence under Sher Khan Sur, later known as Sher Shah

• The Afghan nobles who had once opposed Babur remained a destabilising force.

• Humayun’s inability to consolidate authority left him vulnerable to rebellion and foreign attack.

• The growing power of Sher Shah, an Afghan of the Suri clan, posed the greatest danger to Mughal dominance.

Defeat and Exile

The decisive blows came at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) where Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah. These defeats forced him into exile:

• Humayun fled westwards with a small band of followers.

• His brothers, notably Kamran, refused him assistance.

• The loss of Delhi and Agra in 1540 marked the end of Mughal power for fifteen years.

This exile opened the period known as the Afghan interlude, where the Sur dynasty dominated northern India until 1555.

The Sur Empire at its height under Sher Shah Suri provides a clear overview of Afghan control during Humayun’s years in exile. It locates key centres referenced in the notes and clarifies the scale of Sur dominance before 1555. Source

The Afghan Interlude: The Sur Dynasty

The Afghan interlude was crucial in shaping India’s political landscape. Under Sher Shah Sur (1540–1545) and his successor Islam Shah (1545–1554), significant reforms took place.

Sher Shah’s Achievements

Sher Shah combined military strength with administrative innovation:

• Reorganisation of land revenue through the ryotwari system (direct settlement with peasants).

• Construction of roads, most famously the Grand Trunk Road, improving communication and trade.

• Strengthening of coinage and market regulation.

• Military reforms, including careful recruitment and disciplined cavalry.

Consequences for the Mughals

The Afghan interlude meant:

• The Mughals were absent from India for 15 years.

• Administrative and military reforms under the Surs created challenges for any future Mughal restoration.

• Sher Shah’s rule showed the potential for an Afghan-led empire to rival the Mughals.

Humayun’s Links with Persia

After his defeat, Humayun sought refuge at the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp I in Persia. This relationship was both political necessity and cultural exchange.

Encounter of Humayun and Tahmasp I in Isfahan (1544), painted c. 1647 and preserved at Chehel Sotoun, depicts the Mughal ruler’s reception by the Safavid shah. The scene conveys court ceremonial and the political patronage that enabled Humayun’s restoration. Although painted later than the event, it accurately represents the moment of Mughal–Safavid alliance. Source

Seeking Persian Aid

Humayun’s appeal to Persia involved:

• Humiliation in seeking refuge as a dispossessed ruler.

• Negotiations requiring him to accept Shia Islam at the Safavid court, though whether this was genuine or tactical remains debated.

• Securing Persian military and financial aid to attempt a Mughal restoration.

Impact of Persian Support

Persia provided troops and resources, enabling Humayun to mount a campaign back into Afghanistan:

• He captured Kandahar and Kabul, key strategic bases.

• Persian support allowed Humayun to re-establish a foothold in the region after years of wandering.

• The Persian connection also influenced Mughal court culture, bringing Persian styles of art, architecture, and administration into India.

The Restoration of Humayun

By 1555, the Sur dynasty had weakened due to internal divisions after the death of Islam Shah. Humayun took advantage:

• With Persian aid and the loyalty of some nobles, he regained Delhi and Agra.

• The Battle of Sirhind (1555) confirmed his restoration.

• However, his return to power was short-lived; he died in 1556 after a fall from his library steps.

Significance of the Afghan Interlude and Persian Alliance

The Afghan interlude and Humayun’s Persian links had long-term consequences:

• Administrative legacy: The Suri reforms created models that Akbar and later Mughal emperors would adopt.

• Cultural infusion: Persian court traditions deepened Mughal identity, seen later in art and bureaucracy.

• Fragility of early Mughal rule: The loss of India for fifteen years highlighted the precarious foundations of Babur’s conquests.

• Strategic lesson: Reliance on foreign alliances became a hallmark of Mughal survival in times of crisis.

Key Points for Study

• Humayun’s defeats at Chausa and Kannauj marked the loss of Mughal India to Sher Shah Sur.

• Sher Shah’s administrative, economic, and military reforms strengthened Afghan rule and influenced future Mughal governance.

• Humayun’s exile in Persia under Shah Tahmasp provided vital military and cultural support.

• The Mughal restoration in 1555 was fragile, dependent on both Persian aid and Afghan weakness.