OCR Specification focus:
‘Military achievements, including the second battle of Panipat 1566; territorial gains’
Akbar’s military achievements were decisive in consolidating Mughal authority. His victories extended Mughal dominion, stabilised rule, and transformed the empire into a truly subcontinental power.
The Strategic Context of Akbar’s Military Policy
When Akbar ascended the throne in 1556, the Mughal Empire was vulnerable, threatened by Afghan rivals, Rajput kingdoms, and competing local powers. To survive, Akbar’s regime required both legitimacy and territorial expansion. His campaigns aimed not only at conquest but also at securing loyalty and ensuring administrative stability.
The Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
The most critical early test of Akbar’s rule was the Second Battle of Panipat, fought against Hemu (Hem Chandra Vikramaditya), a capable Hindu general who sought to revive Afghan supremacy.
Hemu commanded a large force, supported by Afghan nobles resentful of Mughal resurgence.
Akbar’s forces, led by his regent Bairam Khan, confronted Hemu on 5 November 1556.
During the battle, Hemu was struck in the eye by an arrow, causing panic among his troops.
Akbarnama painting (c. 1595–1600) depicting the defeat of Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556). The work captures Mughal cavalry and war elephants in combat, providing a period visual of the forces and battlefield milieu. Source
The Mughal cavalry exploited this moment, securing victory and reaffirming Mughal control.
This victory was decisive because it:
Re-established Mughal dominance in northern India.
Prevented the collapse of Akbar’s authority at a fragile stage.
Symbolised the restoration of Mughal prestige after Humayun’s setbacks.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): A major military confrontation between Akbar’s forces under Bairam Khan and Hemu’s Afghan-Hindu army, securing Mughal supremacy in northern India.
The battle also had psychological importance: it underscored Akbar’s role as a legitimate sovereign endorsed by both divine providence and military fortune.
Consolidation of Northern India
After Panipat, Akbar and his advisers focused on neutralising Afghan resistance. Successive campaigns dismantled Afghan strongholds in the Ganges plain and the Doab region, securing Delhi and Agra. The fall of the Afghan threat was gradual, involving:
Systematic sieges of fortresses.
Rewarding loyal nobles with land and offices.
Eliminating leaders who attempted insurgency.
By the early 1560s, Mughal power was firmly entrenched in the heartlands of Hindustan.
Rajput Policy and Expansion
Akbar recognised that enduring empire required the cooperation of the Rajput kingdoms, renowned for their martial traditions. His approach combined force with diplomacy.
Military Campaigns against Rajputs
Some Rajput states resisted Mughal encroachment, particularly Mewar under Rana Udai Singh and later Maharana Pratap. Akbar’s campaigns included:
The capture of Chittor Fort (1568) after a prolonged siege, symbolising the subjugation of Mewar.
High-resolution photograph of Chittorgarh Fort with ramparts and the Gaumukh reservoir visible. Source
The submission of numerous Rajput chiefs who accepted Mughal suzerainty in return for honours and autonomy.
Diplomatic Integration
Other Rajput rulers, notably of Amber, allied voluntarily through:
Matrimonial alliances (e.g., Akbar’s marriage to a Rajput princess, later the mother of Jahangir).
Recognition of Rajput princes as mansabdars (officials within the Mughal hierarchy).
This synthesis of military victory and political accommodation expanded Mughal territory while ensuring loyalty from warrior elites.
Mansabdar: A rank-holder in the Mughal administrative-military system, responsible for maintaining troops and serving the emperor in exchange for land revenue assignments
Campaigns in the North-West and Central India
Akbar also pushed Mughal frontiers beyond the Rajput domains:
Punjab and North-West Frontier: Strategic consolidation against Afghan incursions and the potential threat of Central Asian rivals.
Malwa (1561): Brought under Mughal control, strengthening imperial influence in central India.
Gujarat (1572–1573): Akbar led a swift campaign, capturing Ahmedabad and Surat, thereby securing access to the lucrative western seaports.
These victories not only expanded territory but also enhanced revenue through fertile lands and thriving trade routes.
Bengal and Eastern Expansion
The eastern frontier was secured through campaigns in Bengal, a wealthy and fertile region. Afghan rulers had maintained power there, but Akbar’s forces gradually dismantled their authority. By incorporating Bengal, Akbar added enormous economic strength to the empire, integrating vital agrarian resources.
The Deccan and Southern Aspirations
Although Akbar’s principal gains were in the north and west, he initiated campaigns in the Deccan plateau. His forces advanced into Khandesh and sought to exert pressure on the sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda. These initial incursions laid the foundation for later Mughal dominance in the Deccan under Akbar’s successors.
Methods of Military Success
Akbar’s military success rested not only on his personal leadership but also on structural advantages:
Use of cavalry and artillery, which gave the Mughals a technological edge.
Efficient logistics, allowing rapid movement of armies across vast distances.
Integration of diverse troops, including Rajput contingents, Afghans, and Central Asians.
Centralised command under loyal generals such as Bairam Khan, and later Akbar’s handpicked nobles.
These methods created a disciplined and versatile army capable of both set battles and sieges.
Territorial Gains by 1605
By the end of Akbar’s reign, Mughal territory had expanded significantly:
Northern India was firmly under control, from Punjab to Bengal.
The Rajput kingdoms were largely subdued or allied.
Gujarat, Malwa, and Bihar were absorbed.
Initial footholds in the Deccan had been established.
This expansion created a unified imperial domain, extending Mughal influence from the Himalayas to central India, and from Gujarat’s coast to Bengal’s delta.
A 1907 historical atlas map showing the Mughal Empire in 1605 at the end of Akbar’s reign. The map labels core provinces and adjacent regions, visually reinforcing the empire’s breadth achieved through conquest and diplomatic submission. Source
Territorial Gains: The process by which a state enlarges its dominion through conquest, diplomacy, or annexation, increasing its power, resources, and strategic depth.
The cumulative effect of these campaigns was the transformation of the Mughal state from a precarious foreign dynasty into the dominant power of the Indian subcontinent.
FAQ
Bairam Khan acted as regent during Akbar’s minority and was responsible for directing the Mughal army at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
His leadership ensured disciplined organisation, effective use of cavalry, and the exploitation of Hemu’s wounding, all of which secured victory. Without Bairam Khan’s guidance, Akbar’s fragile rule may not have survived the initial Afghan resurgence.
Chittor was one of the most prestigious Rajput strongholds, associated with honour and resistance. Its fall symbolised Mughal supremacy over the Rajputs.
Although many Rajput states later allied with Akbar willingly, the brutal siege of Chittor demonstrated that refusal could result in overwhelming force. This balance of intimidation and accommodation defined Akbar’s strategy in Rajasthan.
The annexation of Gujarat gave the Mughals access to:
The rich ports of Surat and Cambay, vital for overseas trade.
Prosperous agrarian lands and commercial cities such as Ahmedabad.
By controlling Gujarat, Akbar secured both revenue and maritime connections, strengthening the empire’s economic foundations and linking it more closely to global trade.
Bengal was controlled by Afghan nobles who continued to resist Mughal authority. The region’s swampy terrain and strong local autonomy made conquest difficult.
Akbar overcame these challenges gradually by combining sustained military pressure with administrative integration. Once secured, Bengal became one of the wealthiest provinces, vital for Mughal revenue.
Akbar’s mansabdari system ensured nobles were tied to the empire through ranks and land assignments.
This system maintained loyalty while providing troops for campaigns. By embedding Rajputs and Afghans into this structure, Akbar created a diverse but unified army that could both conquer and sustain control over new territories.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Which rival general led the Afghan-Hindu forces against Akbar’s army at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying Hemu (Hem Chandra or Hem Chandra Vikramaditya also acceptable).
0 marks for incorrect or irrelevant answers.
Maximum 2 marks: Award full marks for the correct name, partial marks not applicable.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two ways in which Akbar’s military achievements contributed to the expansion of the Mughal Empire by 1605.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explanation, depending on depth and accuracy.
To achieve 3 marks, the answer must clearly explain how the military achievement led to expansion.
Examples of acceptable points:
Second Battle of Panipat (1556):
1 mark for identifying the battle.
1 mark for noting it secured Mughal control of northern India.
1 mark for explaining its importance in preventing collapse of Mughal rule and establishing dominance.
Conquest of Rajput states (e.g. Chittor Fort, 1568):
1 mark for identifying conquest of Rajput fortresses.
1 mark for describing the symbolic subjugation of Mewar and expansion into Rajputana.
1 mark for explaining how this ensured long-term loyalty and stability by integrating Rajputs into Mughal rule.
Campaigns in Gujarat or Bengal:
1 mark for identifying conquest of Gujarat (1572–1573) or Bengal.
1 mark for noting economic or strategic value (e.g. ports, fertile land).
1 mark for explaining contribution to Mughal resources and imperial consolidation.
Maximum 6 marks: award full credit if two military achievements are both fully explained. Partial answers may score between 1–5 marks, depending on accuracy and depth.
