OCR Specification focus:
‘The personality and rule of Aurangzeb; religious policies; the resurgence of the Maharatas, conflicts in the Deccan and their consequences’
Aurangzeb’s reign from 1658 to 1707 was the longest of all Mughal rulers and marked a decisive turning point in the history of the empire. His personality, religious policies, and conflicts—particularly in the Deccan—shaped both the height of Mughal territorial power and the seeds of its eventual decline.
Aurangzeb’s Personality
Aurangzeb, often titled Alamgir (‘World Seizer’), projected himself as a ruler of discipline, piety, and austerity. Unlike earlier Mughal emperors such as Akbar or Jahangir, he avoided luxury and displayed a personal commitment to orthodox Islam.
He refused to be painted, rejected court ceremonial excesses, and personally copied Qur’anic verses to earn a livelihood for his burial.
His reputation for personal austerity contrasted sharply with the opulence of the Mughal court tradition, reinforcing his image as a moral reformer.
However, his personality also shaped his policies in ways that generated resentment. His strict and uncompromising nature alienated sections of his subjects, especially non-Muslim elites who had previously been integrated into the empire.
Orthodoxy: In the Mughal context, adherence to Islamic law (sharia) and traditions without accommodating other religious or cultural practices.
Aurangzeb’s personal piety influenced his approach to governance, but this rigidity limited the inclusivity of Mughal rule.
The Rule of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb expanded Mughal dominion to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from Kashmir to the deep Deccan.
His administration retained many features established by Akbar but increasingly became strained under the pressure of war.
The centralised bureaucracy was heavily militarised, with jagir (land-revenue assignments) increasingly allocated to soldiers.
Rising military expenditure placed immense strain on imperial finances, leading to tensions between the mansabdars (rank holders) and the state.
His long absence from the north, due to campaigns in the Deccan, weakened central control and allowed provincial governors to grow more independent.
Mansabdar: A rank holder in the Mughal administrative and military system, responsible for providing troops in return for land revenue assignments.
Aurangzeb’s rule, therefore, combined impressive territorial achievement with administrative fragility.
Religious Policies
Aurangzeb is most remembered for his religious orthodoxy, which reversed the policies of tolerance practised by Akbar.
Key Features of Aurangzeb’s Religious Policies
Reimposition of the Jizya (1679): A tax levied on non-Muslims, which had been abolished by Akbar.
Temple Destruction: Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of some Hindu temples, particularly in areas of political rebellion. Notably, the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Kesava Deo temple in Mathura were targeted.
Exclusion from Court: Hindu musicians and artists were discouraged at court, contrasting with the cultural synthesis of earlier emperors.
Sharia-based governance: Aurangzeb commissioned the compilation of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a legal code based on Islamic law.
Jizya: A per capita tax levied on non-Muslims in an Islamic state, signifying their protected but subordinate status.
Despite these measures, it is important to note that Aurangzeb continued to employ large numbers of Hindu officials, including high-ranking Rajput generals and administrators. However, his overt religious policies created discontent and fostered resistance movements.
The Resurgence of the Marathas
Aurangzeb’s policies in the Deccan brought him into direct conflict with the Marathas, a Hindu warrior group led initially by Shivaji Bhonsle.
The Maratha Challenge
Rise under Shivaji (r. 1674–1680): Shivaji established a strong Maratha kingdom, challenging Mughal dominance in the Deccan.
Guerrilla Warfare: The Marathas used highly mobile cavalry raids, making them difficult to subdue despite Aurangzeb’s massive armies.
Persistence after Shivaji: Successive Maratha leaders continued resistance, conducting raids deep into Mughal territories.
Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his reign campaigning in the Deccan, but the Marathas proved resilient and ultimately drained the empire’s strength.
Guerrilla Warfare: A form of irregular warfare using small groups of combatants employing ambushes, raids, and mobility to counter larger conventional forces.
The prolonged conflict with the Marathas demonstrated the limits of Mughal military power.
Conflicts in the Deccan and Their Consequences
Aurangzeb’s campaigns in the Deccan—against the Marathas, the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda, and other regional powers—were central to his reign.
The Deccan Wars
Conquest of Bijapur (1686): The Adil Shahi dynasty was annexed into the Mughal Empire.
Conquest of Golconda (1687): The Qutb Shahi dynasty was defeated, giving Aurangzeb control over the rich diamond mines of the Deccan.
Maratha Resistance: Despite these conquests, the Marathas remained unconquered, continuing to raid Mughal lands.
Consequences
Financial Strain: Continuous warfare depleted the treasury and overburdened the revenue system.
Weakening of Northern Control: With Aurangzeb’s focus on the south, northern provinces faced growing instability.
Provincial Rebellions: The Jats, Sikhs, and Rajputs exploited Mughal weakness to assert their autonomy.
Legacy of Fragmentation: The empire reached its largest size but became overstretched and fragile, laying the groundwork for decline after 1707.
In sum, Aurangzeb’s personality and religious policies, combined with the resurgence of the Marathas and the grinding Deccan wars, shaped the trajectory of the Mughal Empire’s fortunes and contributed decisively to its decline after his death.
FAQ
Aurangzeb was raised in a competitive Mughal court environment, where rivalry with his brothers was constant. His strict Islamic education, emphasising Qur’anic memorisation and law, fostered his reputation for piety.
Unlike his father Shah Jahan, who patronised art and architecture, Aurangzeb’s formative experiences pushed him towards austerity and military discipline. This background helps explain his later rejection of lavish cultural traditions at court.
The Deccan was strategically important due to:
The presence of wealthy sultanates like Bijapur and Golconda, whose revenues could bolster imperial finances.
The diamond mines and trade networks in the region, which were crucial for Mughal economic dominance.
The rise of the Marathas, who threatened imperial control through guerrilla warfare.
Aurangzeb saw subduing the Deccan as essential to consolidating Mughal authority, though the campaigns drained imperial resources.
Earlier emperors, especially Akbar, had built strong alliances with Rajput rulers, integrating them into the Mughal elite.
Aurangzeb’s strained relations with some Rajput houses—particularly his conflict with Mewar—damaged this tradition of partnership. While Rajput nobles still held high positions, the perception of reduced tolerance weakened loyalty and fostered opposition.
The jizya had existed in earlier Islamic states, including under the Delhi Sultanate, but Akbar abolished it to promote inclusivity.
Aurangzeb revived it in 1679, not just as a fiscal measure but as a public assertion of religious orthodoxy. This symbolic aspect meant it was widely resented, especially among Hindu elites who had previously seen themselves as integral to Mughal governance.
Continuous campaigning led to:
Overstretching of the jagir (land revenue) system, causing shortages of land assignments for mansabdars.
A weakened central treasury as military costs outpaced income.
Growing autonomy of provincial governors, as central authority was distracted in the south.
These effects meant that after Aurangzeb’s death, the empire lacked financial stability and administrative cohesion, accelerating its decline.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri and why was it significant during Aurangzeb’s reign?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying that it was a compilation/digest of Islamic (Hanafi) law.
1 mark for explaining its significance as evidence of Aurangzeb’s religious orthodoxy or its role in guiding imperial justice.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Aurangzeb’s religious policies created opposition within the Mughal Empire.
Mark Scheme
Up to 3 marks per reason.
Award 1 mark for simple identification of a reason (e.g., “He reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims”).
Award a second mark for elaboration of how this policy worked or what it involved.
Award a third mark for clear explanation of why this created opposition or resentment (e.g., “The jizya was seen as discriminatory against Hindus, alienating many subjects who had been integrated under Akbar’s policy of tolerance”).
Other valid examples include temple destructions, exclusion of non-Muslim cultural influences at court, or the promotion of sharia-based governance through the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri.
