OCR Specification focus:
‘developments in political thought and emerging leaders, including Locke, Jefferson, Dickinson, John Adams and Samuel Adams.’
The intellectual foundations of the American Revolution were shaped by both Enlightenment philosophy and the leadership of influential colonial figures, who redefined ideas of liberty, governance, and identity.
Intellectual Context of Political Thought
The Enlightenment and Natural Rights
The Enlightenment provided colonists with a new intellectual framework for understanding politics. Thinkers such as John Locke profoundly influenced colonial leaders by asserting that governments derived authority from the consent of the governed and existed to protect natural rights.
Portrait of John Locke (1697) by Godfrey Kneller. Locke’s arguments for natural rights and government by consent shaped colonial critiques of British authority and informed revolutionary rhetoric. Source
Natural Rights: Fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, including life, liberty, and property, which governments are obliged to respect and protect.
Locke’s Two Treatises of Government rejected absolute monarchy and emphasised that citizens had the right to rebel against tyranny. Colonists applied these ideas to Britain’s policies after 1763, interpreting taxation without representation as a violation of natural rights.
Colonial Traditions and Self-Government
Alongside Enlightenment ideas, colonists drew upon long-established practices of representative assemblies and local autonomy. Colonial legislatures had developed strong identities, and many colonists saw Parliamentary interference as a direct threat to these traditions.
Emerging Leaders and Their Ideas
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson emerged as a principal advocate of Enlightenment ideals in the American context. Drawing heavily on Locke, Jefferson asserted that liberty was universal and non-negotiable. His drafting of the Declaration of Independence (1776) exemplified this philosophy, outlining that all men were created equal and endowed with rights beyond governmental infringement.
Emphasised agrarian republicanism.
Advocated decentralised government responsive to the people.
Saw Britain’s taxation policies as unjust domination.
John Dickinson
John Dickinson, known as the "Penman of the Revolution," played a more cautious but still significant role. His Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767–1768) argued that while Britain had the right to regulate imperial trade, taxation required colonial consent.
Consent of the Governed: The principle that political legitimacy is derived from the agreement of the people to be governed, typically expressed through representation.
Dickinson avoided calls for immediate independence but laid essential groundwork for opposition by articulating constitutional objections to British policies.
John Adams
John Adams provided both intellectual and practical leadership. A skilled lawyer and political thinker, he argued that Parliament had no authority over the colonies. His writings in Novanglus (1774–1775) emphasised the sovereignty of colonial legislatures.
Supported checks and balances to prevent tyranny.
Advocated for independence earlier than Dickinson.
Played a pivotal role in debates during the Continental Congresses.
Samuel Adams
Samuel Adams became a central figure in shaping revolutionary sentiment at the grassroots level. Less focused on theoretical philosophy than his cousin John, he effectively mobilised public opinion through pamphlets, speeches, and committees of correspondence.
Framed Britain’s taxation as enslavement.
Promoted popular participation in politics.
Encouraged resistance, including protests against the Stamp Act and Tea Act.
Thomas Paine (Additional Influence)
Although not listed in the specification, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) galvanised public opinion by simplifying complex Enlightenment arguments into accessible language. His emphasis on independence as a moral necessity accelerated revolutionary momentum.
Intersections Between Ideas and Action
From Thought to Revolution
The convergence of Enlightenment philosophy and colonial political traditions created a powerful intellectual environment. Leaders translated abstract principles into concrete demands:
Locke’s natural rights shaped Jefferson’s rhetoric.
Dickinson’s constitutional reasoning provided legal legitimacy.
John Adams’ institutional thought informed structures of governance.
Samuel Adams’ populist activism mobilised ordinary colonists.
Together, these ideas created a shared political vocabulary that linked diverse colonies into a united resistance.
Views on Trade and Taxation
Trade and taxation were central battlegrounds for political thought. Colonists increasingly rejected mercantilism and the restrictive economic framework imposed by Britain.
Mercantilism: An economic theory that emphasises the regulation of trade to benefit the wealth and power of the mother country, often at the expense of colonies.
Leaders argued that taxation without representation contradicted fundamental principles of self-government. Many viewed British attempts to enforce trade laws, such as the Navigation Acts, as both economically restrictive and politically illegitimate.
Unity and Divergence Among Leaders
Although united by opposition to Britain, leaders differed in emphasis:
Jefferson and Locke stressed universal rights and liberty.
Dickinson defended constitutional balance but hesitated on independence.
John Adams prioritised institutional design and sovereignty.
Samuel Adams focused on popular mobilisation and radical resistance.
These variations enriched the intellectual climate and ensured that the Revolution drew upon both elite philosophy and mass participation.
The Transformation of Colonial Political Thought
By the mid-1770s, colonial political thought had transformed from defending traditional liberties within the British Empire to advocating full independence. The role of emerging leaders in bridging Enlightenment philosophy with colonial realities cannot be overstated. Their writings, speeches, and leadership provided both the ideological justification and the practical organisation required for revolution.
FAQ
Locke’s works, particularly Two Treatises of Government, circulated widely in colonial libraries and through pamphlets. Educated elites such as lawyers, clergymen, and merchants read and discussed his theories.
His arguments about natural rights and government by consent were frequently quoted in newspapers and sermons, making them accessible to ordinary colonists. Locke’s influence therefore spread both through scholarly circles and popular debate.
Dickinson feared that a break from Britain would bring economic instability and leave the colonies vulnerable to foreign powers.
He valued the constitutional link with Britain and believed reform could restore balance. His approach was rooted in pragmatism, seeking to avoid bloodshed while defending colonial rights.
Samuel Adams used committees of correspondence to link towns and colonies, spreading information quickly and building unity.
He encouraged boycotts and public demonstrations, framing taxation as a form of enslavement. Unlike some leaders, his focus was on engaging ordinary colonists in resistance, rather than purely on legal or intellectual argument.
As a lawyer, John Adams believed in the importance of constitutions, checks, and balances to restrain power.
His legal training emphasised evidence and argumentation, strengthening his ability to challenge British claims.
He saw the colonial assemblies as legitimate bodies, comparable to courts, with authority to govern locally.
This legalistic perspective shaped his vision of a structured republic.
Jefferson believed farmers were independent, virtuous citizens less likely to be corrupted by wealth and power.
He contrasted agricultural life with commerce and manufacturing, which he associated with inequality and dependency. For Jefferson, agrarian values underpinned republican government, ensuring freedom and responsibility remained with the people.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Which Enlightenment thinker most directly influenced Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the Declaration of Independence?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying John Locke.
1 additional mark for noting Locke’s emphasis on natural rights or government by consent.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the ideas of John Dickinson and John Adams differed in their responses to British policy towards the colonies.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for explaining Dickinson’s position: argued Britain could regulate trade but taxation required consent; cautious approach, opposed immediate independence.
Up to 2 marks for explaining Adams’ position: argued Parliament had no authority over colonies; supported early independence; promoted checks and balances.
Up to 2 marks for direct comparison: contrast between Dickinson’s constitutional caution and Adams’ more radical advocacy for sovereignty and independence.
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