OCR Specification focus:
‘The move towards independence 1774–1776 including the first and second Continental Congresses, Declaration of Independence (1776)’
The outbreak of hostilities between Britain and her American colonies from 1775 marked a decisive turning point, transforming escalating disputes over taxation and governance into open war.
Background to Rising Tensions
The Breakdown of Anglo-Colonial Relations
By 1774, the Intolerable Acts had enraged colonists. These laws, passed in response to the Boston Tea Party, closed Boston’s port, curtailed Massachusetts’ self-government, and allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in Britain. Colonists viewed these measures as an attack on liberty and a violation of the principles of self-rule.
The First Continental Congress (1774)
Delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia to formulate a unified response. They agreed upon:
A boycott of British goods through the Continental Association.
A petition to King George III seeking the repeal of coercive legislation.
Recognition that Parliament had no authority to tax colonies without consent.
This congress did not yet demand independence but laid the foundation for colonial unity.
Outbreak of Hostilities in 1775
Lexington and Concord (April 1775)
British troops marched to seize colonial arms stores in Concord. Local militia — known as Minutemen — resisted, and skirmishes broke out at Lexington and Concord.
Routes of Patriot riders (Revere, Dawes, Prescott) and the British expedition on 19 April 1775. The map clarifies where warnings spread and where the first fighting occurred. Source
This was the first open fighting.
The “shot heard ’round the world” became symbolic of the Revolution’s beginning.
Militia: Civilian soldiers, usually part-time, who were trained and organised locally to defend their communities.
The battles revealed that colonial resistance was not confined to rhetoric but now armed and coordinated.
The Siege of Boston
After Lexington and Concord, colonial militia surrounded Boston, trapping General Gage’s forces. The situation escalated when colonial troops fortified positions at Bunker Hill in June 1775.
Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775): Though technically a British victory, heavy British casualties demonstrated colonial determination and effectiveness.
Contemporary-style plan of the Battle of Bunker Hill showing redoubts, approach routes, and naval fire support. It highlights why British casualties were so high despite success, reinforcing early battlefield dynamics. Source
The outcome convinced many colonists that armed struggle was viable.
The Second Continental Congress (1775)
Convened in May 1775, this congress represented a crucial development:
George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the newly established Continental Army.
The Olive Branch Petition was sent to King George III, reaffirming loyalty while requesting redress of grievances.
Simultaneously, the congress began to manage war efforts, raising funds and coordinating supplies.
The rejection of the Olive Branch Petition by the King — who declared the colonies in rebellion — eliminated hopes for reconciliation.
Key Military Developments
Expansion of Fighting
Hostilities spread beyond Massachusetts:
Invasion of Canada (1775): A failed American attempt to capture Quebec, designed to encourage French Canadians to join the rebellion.
Skirmishes across the southern and middle colonies, including attacks on loyalist strongholds.
Importance of Leadership
The appointment of Washington brought structure to colonial forces. Despite initial struggles with discipline and supply shortages, his leadership gave credibility to the revolutionary cause.
Loyalists: Colonists who remained supportive of British rule and opposed the revolutionary movement.
Washington’s insistence on a professional army separated the rebellion from mere civil unrest, presenting it as a serious military and political challenge to Britain.
Towards Independence
Shift in Political Thinking
By late 1775 and early 1776, pamphlets such as Thomas Paine’s Common Sense argued passionately for complete independence. Paine framed monarchy as corrupt and incompatible with liberty, galvanising public opinion.
Escalation of War Effort
The capture of Boston (March 1776) by American forces using artillery from Fort Ticonderoga boosted morale and weakened Britain’s grip on New England.
Detailed 1777 plan of Boston and its environs, including Dorchester Heights and military works that made British occupation untenable. It shows why artillery placement forced British evacuation. Source
The Declaration of Independence (1776)
In July 1776, the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson. It:
Asserted natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Claimed governments derived legitimacy from the consent of the governed.
Formally severed ties with Britain, portraying the King as a tyrant.
Declaration of Independence: The document adopted on 4 July 1776 in which the American colonies declared themselves free and independent states, no longer under British rule.
This declaration marked the culmination of the outbreak of hostilities, shifting the conflict from a colonial rebellion into a full-scale war for independence.
British Responses and Weaknesses
Misjudgement of Colonial Resolve
British leaders underestimated the depth of colonial unity and determination. The expectation of quick suppression proved unrealistic.
Military Overstretch
Maintaining control over a vast territory across the Atlantic required significant resources. Distance and communication delays hindered British strategy.
The Role of Political Leadership
Poor coordination between military commanders and ministers in London weakened Britain’s ability to exploit early advantages. This leadership issue contributed to prolonging the conflict.
Key Takeaways
Hostilities began in earnest with Lexington and Concord (1775).
The Continental Congresses provided unity and political legitimacy to colonial resistance.
Early military encounters, including Bunker Hill and the Siege of Boston, showed that Britain faced a determined opponent.
By 1776, the Declaration of Independence transformed the conflict into an ideological and political struggle for sovereignty.
FAQ
Before Washington’s appointment, militias provided the bulk of resistance. They:
Organised locally under town or provincial authority.
Mobilised rapidly, such as the Minutemen at Lexington and Concord.
Maintained pressure in the Siege of Boston while Congress debated creating a national force.
These groups lacked standard discipline and training, but their immediate mobilisation ensured Britain faced armed resistance from the start.
The petition demonstrated that many colonists still sought reconciliation. Moderate delegates, such as John Dickinson, hoped to avoid outright war.
At the same time, radicals viewed the petition as a delaying tactic while preparing for conflict. Its rejection by King George III deepened the rift, confirming to moderates that reconciliation was no longer possible.
The invasion aimed to win French Canadian support and weaken Britain’s northern base.
Its failure:
Denied the colonists a potential ally.
Drained resources and manpower at a critical stage.
Undermined confidence in offensive operations outside the Thirteen Colonies.
This setback contrasted with successes in New England, highlighting the uneven nature of the early war effort.
Dorchester Heights overlooked both Boston town and harbour. Control of this high ground allowed artillery to dominate British positions.
When Washington installed cannon there in March 1776, the British position became untenable. Naval vessels risked bombardment, and occupation of the city was no longer sustainable, forcing evacuation.
General Thomas Gage faced conflicting instructions from London: to assert control firmly but avoid provoking full-scale rebellion.
This hesitation created problems:
The march to Concord underestimated colonial readiness.
Poor intelligence and planning led to heavy losses during the retreat.
Such miscalculations gave colonists confidence while exposing weaknesses in British command at the very start of hostilities.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name the two towns where the first fighting between British troops and colonial militia broke out in April 1775.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying Lexington.
1 mark for correctly identifying Concord.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775) was significant in the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and the American colonies.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for identifying key factual points:
It was one of the earliest major battles.
Technically a British victory but at great cost.
Up to 2 marks for explanation of consequences:
Heavy British casualties demonstrated the determination and effectiveness of colonial militia.
Showed that the war would not be a quick or easy suppression.
Up to 2 marks for wider significance:
Encouraged colonial confidence in their military capability.
Contributed to the shift from protest to full-scale armed struggle.
Indicative content:
Candidates may refer to British losses, colonial morale, strategic implications in Boston, and how the battle altered perceptions on both sides. To gain full marks, responses must both describe events and explain their significance.
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