OCR Specification focus:
‘Move towards the creation of a constitution and challenges faced; Articles of Confederation’
The early United States faced urgent pressures: weak government structures, internal unrest, and foreign threats. These challenges encouraged moves towards creating a stronger constitution.
The Articles of Confederation
Structure and Principles
The Articles of Confederation were drafted in 1777 and ratified in 1781, serving as the first constitution of the United States.
This is the engrossed, corrected parchment of the Articles of Confederation. It visually supports the point that the national framework was deliberately weak and state-centred. Source
A unicameral legislature (Congress) was created, with each state having one vote regardless of size.
No separate executive or national judiciary existed.
Congress had limited powers: conducting foreign affairs, declaring war, making treaties, and managing western lands.
Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, establishing a loose confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government.
This arrangement prioritised state sovereignty while deliberately weakening central authority.
Strengths of the Articles
Despite weaknesses, the Articles achieved some successes:
Coordinated victory in the War of Independence.
Negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), securing independence.
Passed the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which set procedures for admitting new states and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.
These measures demonstrated that the Confederation could handle certain national issues.
Challenges Under the Articles
Financial Difficulties
The Confederation struggled financially because:
Congress lacked the power to levy taxes directly.
Revenue relied on voluntary contributions from states, which were rarely sufficient.
Inflation and debt accumulated during and after the war, undermining confidence in the economy.
Interstate Disputes
Without strong central authority, states often acted independently:
Imposed tariffs on each other’s goods, disrupting trade.
Issued their own currencies, creating confusion and economic instability.
Disputed borders, particularly in western lands, causing political friction.
Foreign Policy Weakness
The Confederation’s inability to enforce treaties or maintain a standing army left the nation vulnerable.
Britain refused to withdraw troops from western forts.
Spain restricted American access to the Mississippi River, vital for western farmers.
These failures highlighted the need for stronger national power.
Civil Unrest: Shays’ Rebellion
The most dramatic challenge came with Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787). Led by Daniel Shays, Massachusetts farmers—struggling with debt and high taxes—rebelled against state authorities.
Shays’ Rebellion: An armed uprising of indebted farmers in Massachusetts protesting economic hardship and aggressive taxation, exposing the weakness of the Confederation government.
The rebellion was eventually suppressed, but it revealed the inability of the Confederation to maintain order without a reliable military force.
Colour illustration of Shays’ protesters confronting authority in Massachusetts, 1786–1787. It exemplifies the economic distress and civil disorder that persuaded leaders the Articles were inadequate. Source
Towards a New Constitution
Calls for Reform
By the mid-1780s, many leaders concluded that the Articles were inadequate. Concerns focused on:
The inability to raise revenue.
Weak responses to internal unrest.
Lack of authority in foreign negotiations.
Figures like George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton argued for a stronger federal government.
The Annapolis Convention (1786)
This meeting aimed to resolve trade disputes but saw poor attendance. However, it issued a call for a larger gathering to address constitutional reform, leading directly to the Philadelphia Convention.
The Philadelphia Convention (1787)
In May 1787, delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island abstained) met in Philadelphia. Instead of merely amending the Articles, they chose to draft an entirely new constitution.
Howard Chandler Christy’s famous painting depicts the Philadelphia Convention with George Washington presiding. It visualises the decisive move from a loose confederation to a stronger federal framework. Source
Key decisions included:
Establishing a federal system dividing power between states and national government.
Creating separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Strengthening the ability to levy taxes, regulate commerce, and enforce laws.
This marked a decisive break from the weak structures of the Articles.
Nature of the 1787 Constitution
The Constitution of 1787 replaced the Articles of Confederation with a framework that:
Enhanced central power while retaining state authority.
Instituted checks and balances to prevent tyranny.
Provided mechanisms for amendment to adapt to future challenges.
Constitution of 1787: The foundational legal framework of the United States, replacing the Articles of Confederation and establishing a stronger federal government with separate branches of power.
Its ratification in 1788 represented both continuity with revolutionary ideals and a pragmatic response to the failures of the Confederation.
FAQ
The states had just fought a war to free themselves from perceived tyranny by Britain. Many feared that a powerful central government could easily replicate monarchical oppression.
Instead, sovereignty was deliberately placed in the states. Each state retained control over taxation, commerce, and internal law-making. This reflected both local loyalties and suspicion of distant authority.
Western lands beyond the original colonies were a major source of tension. Some states claimed extensive territory, while others had none.
Landed states (e.g. Virginia) wanted to maintain their claims.
Landless states (e.g. Maryland) feared inequality and resisted ratification until western lands were ceded to federal control.
The eventual compromise placed western territories under Congress’s authority, leading to the Northwest Ordinance.
The Northwest Ordinance (1787) set clear procedures for admitting new states.
Territories could become states once they reached a population threshold.
Slavery was prohibited in the Northwest Territory, establishing a precedent for sectional divides.
Rights such as freedom of religion and trial by jury were guaranteed, demonstrating the Confederation’s ability to legislate effectively despite its weaknesses.
Though poorly attended, the Annapolis Convention revealed growing recognition that the Articles were unworkable. Only five states sent delegates, limiting its effectiveness.
Its significance lay in its call for a broader convention to address constitutional reform. This directly paved the way for the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.
Foreign powers recognised America’s fragile position.
Britain refused to vacate military posts in the Northwest and restricted American trade within the empire.
Spain closed the Mississippi River to American navigation, crippling western trade.
Without a strong military or central authority to negotiate effectively, the United States was unable to resist these pressures, highlighting the urgency of reform.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What year were the Articles of Confederation ratified?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year as 1781.
0 marks for incorrect year.
No partial credit for approximate answers (e.g. “1780s” is not acceptable).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two problems faced by the United States under the Articles of Confederation.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per problem explained, maximum 6 marks.
To gain full marks for each problem, candidates must:
Identify a valid problem (e.g. lack of power to levy taxes, inability to enforce treaties, interstate disputes, foreign policy weakness, economic instability, or Shays’ Rebellion).
Provide an accurate explanation of how this weakened the Confederation government.
Examples of acceptable responses:
Financial weakness (up to 3 marks): Congress could not levy taxes directly and depended on voluntary contributions from states. This led to debt, inflation, and inability to fund a standing army.
Civil disorder (up to 3 marks): Shays’ Rebellion revealed the Confederation’s inability to maintain order or suppress unrest, showing the dangers of a weak federal structure.
Award:
1 mark for identifying a problem.
2 marks for identification plus limited explanation.
3 marks for identification plus a well-developed explanation clearly linking to the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
