OCR Specification focus:
‘The Continental System and the war against Britain; the war in Spain’
The Continental System and the wars in Spain were central to Napoleon’s downfall. Both demonstrated the limits of French power, undermining his empire strategically, militarily, and economically.
The Continental System
Purpose and Design
The Continental System (1806–1814) was Napoleon’s grand strategy to weaken Britain economically.
Europe under Napoleon around 1811, with darker shading for the First French Empire and lighter tones for satellite states and other countries applying the Continental blockade. This visual illustrates how widely the embargo was meant to extend, and why enforcement pressures mounted. Year-specific (1811) detail exceeds the syllabus chronology but remains directly relevant to understanding the policy’s scope. Source
Berlin Decree (1806): Forbade European states under French control from importing British goods.
Milan Decree (1807): Strengthened the system by authorising French seizures of neutral ships trading with Britain.
Napoleon believed Britain’s survival depended on overseas trade, and by closing Europe’s markets he could force its surrender.
Continental System: Napoleon’s economic blockade aimed at destroying Britain’s trade by preventing continental Europe from engaging in commerce with it.
Weaknesses and Failures
Despite its ambition, the system was fundamentally flawed.
Smuggling: Extensive smuggling networks, especially through Portugal and the Baltic, undermined enforcement.
Neutral states: Nations such as the United States continued to trade with Britain.
Economic damage to Europe: France’s allies and satellite states, such as the German states and Italy, suffered economically.
British adaptability: Britain redirected trade to the Americas and Asia, sustaining overall exports.
The blockade often harmed France more than Britain, generating resentment among subject populations.
Political Consequences
The policy caused serious diplomatic and political strains:
Russia, dependent on British trade, grew discontented and eventually abandoned the system in 1810.
The Continental System deepened resentment in occupied Europe, especially where local economies collapsed.
Napoleon’s insistence on its enforcement compelled him to commit military resources to Spain and later to invade Russia.
The War against Britain
Naval Dimension
Britain’s naval supremacy prevented Napoleon from directly invading the British Isles.
The Battle of Trafalgar (1805) confirmed British dominance at sea, making naval blockade impossible.
Diagram of fleet positions at 1200 hours during the Battle of Trafalgar, showing the moment Royal Sovereign broke the Franco-Spanish line. It clarifies how British tactics underpinned command of the sea that Napoleon could not challenge. Ship-level detail goes beyond the syllabus but serves to explain the strategic point succinctly. Source
Britain’s Royal Navy ensured that Britain could maintain global trade routes despite the Continental System.
Economic War
Britain’s use of the Orders in Council (1807) countered French decrees by restricting neutral trade with Europe.
The economic struggle highlighted Britain’s resilience, while Napoleon was increasingly drawn into costly continental campaigns that weakened his empire.
The War in Spain
The Peninsular Uprising (1808)
Napoleon’s decision to occupy Spain and place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne in 1808 triggered massive resistance.
The Spanish people rejected foreign rule and defended the Bourbon monarchy.
Religion played a significant role: the Catholic Church encouraged opposition to the French.
Popular anger translated into guerrilla warfare, an irregular style of fighting that drained French resources.
Guerrilla warfare: Irregular warfare involving small, mobile groups using surprise attacks and ambushes rather than conventional battle.
British Intervention
Britain seized the opportunity to support Spain:
Duke of Wellington led British forces to assist Spanish rebels.
From 1808, British troops landed in Portugal, establishing the Peninsular War as a major theatre of conflict.
British strategy exploited guerrilla tactics by supporting local insurgents while launching their own campaigns.
French Difficulties
The Peninsular War was a grinding and costly conflict.
French armies faced constant harassment from guerrilla bands.
The mountainous geography of Spain favoured irregular resistance.
Conventional battles, such as Talavera (1809) and Vitoria (1813), highlighted growing Franco-Spanish-British coordination against Napoleon.
The war became known as the “Spanish Ulcer”, a long-running drain on French manpower and morale.
Strategic Impact
The consequences of the Spanish conflict were severe:
Napoleon was forced to divert troops from central Europe, weakening his position against Austria and later Russia.
By 1813, Britain had established a solid base in the Iberian Peninsula, launching offensives into southern France.
The Peninsular War demonstrated that Napoleon could be resisted successfully, encouraging wider European opposition.
Interconnection of the Continental System and Spanish War
The Continental System and the Peninsular War were deeply linked in undermining Napoleon’s empire.
Enforcement of the blockade against Britain required the invasion of Portugal in 1807, which dragged France into Spain.
Britain’s survival ensured it could bankroll and support resistance movements across Europe, particularly in Spain.
The system’s failure and the Spanish conflict combined to erode French prestige, overstretch military resources, and embolden rival powers.
Wider European Consequences
The failures of these policies exposed the limits of Napoleon’s control:
Britain emerged as the unshaken enemy, economically and militarily strong.
Spain revealed that popular resistance and guerrilla tactics could defeat French armies.
Discontent across Europe mounted, with Russia’s withdrawal from the system ultimately leading to the disastrous Russian Campaign (1812).
By the time of the campaigns of 1813, Napoleon’s empire was crumbling, with the Continental System and the war in Spain serving as turning points in his decline.
FAQ
After the defeat at Trafalgar in 1805, Napoleon recognised that Britain’s naval supremacy made direct invasion impossible. Economic warfare was the alternative strategy to undermine Britain.
By restricting Britain’s trade with Europe through the Continental System, Napoleon hoped to force Britain into financial crisis and eventual political collapse. This shift reflected France’s military limits at sea.
Neutral states were caught between French decrees and Britain’s Orders in Council.
The United States faced restrictions on trading with either side.
American merchants suffered losses when ships were seized by both French and British authorities.
Tensions eventually contributed to the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States, though this lay outside Napoleon’s immediate control.
Spanish resistance was deeply rooted in cultural identity.
The Catholic Church denounced French reforms as attacks on religion.
Traditional loyalty to the Bourbon monarchy made Joseph Bonaparte unpopular.
Local pride and village solidarity encouraged participation in guerrilla bands, making resistance widespread and hard to suppress.
Guerrilla warfare relied on small, mobile groups avoiding pitched battles.
Fighters attacked supply lines, ambushed detachments, and retreated into rugged terrain.
Unlike Napoleon’s emphasis on decisive, large-scale battles, guerrillas aimed to exhaust and demoralise French troops.
This forced the French to spread their forces thinly, reducing their ability to dominate strategically.
Britain saw Spain as an ideal front to stretch Napoleon’s resources.
By funding and supplying guerrilla groups, Britain ensured continuous disruption to French control.
The Iberian Peninsula provided a secure entry point for British troops to engage French forces directly.
Success in Spain demonstrated Britain’s commitment to continental warfare, boosting the confidence of Napoleon’s other enemies.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the main aim of Napoleon’s Continental System?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that the aim was to weaken Britain economically.
1 additional mark for explaining this was to be achieved by preventing European states from trading with Britain.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Peninsular War was damaging to Napoleon’s power in Europe.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each developed reason.
1 mark for identifying a relevant reason.
1 additional mark for providing supporting detail or example.
1 further mark for explaining how this damaged Napoleon’s wider power.
Possible answers may include:
Guerrilla warfare: The irregular fighting style drained French manpower and resources (1), with constant harassment limiting French control (1), thereby undermining French military effectiveness and morale (1).
British intervention: The Duke of Wellington’s forces and coordination with Spanish resistance (1) provided effective opposition (1), enabling Britain to establish a base for attacks into France by 1813 (1).
Diversion of troops: Napoleon had to commit forces away from central Europe (1), leaving him weaker against Austria and Russia (1), which contributed to defeats in later coalitions (1).
