OCR Specification focus:
‘attitudes to the Roman Republic; overseas colonisation; the Crimean War; Italy and relations with Cavour’
The reign of Napoleon III was marked by ambitious foreign ventures. His policies towards Italy, Rome, and overseas territories reveal his drive for prestige and influence.
Napoleon III and the Roman Republic
The 1849 Intervention
Napoleon III’s attitude to the Roman Republic was shaped by both domestic politics and international ambitions. In 1849, French troops were sent to crush the newly declared Roman Republic, which had arisen after Pope Pius IX fled Rome during revolutionary upheavals.
Napoleon III wanted to win support from French Catholics by defending the Papacy.
At the same time, he claimed to defend liberal nationalism by opposing Austrian dominance in Italy.
The intervention was paradoxical: it restored the Pope’s temporal authority, but was portrayed as a defence of liberty.
This action demonstrated Napoleon III’s balancing act: appealing to Catholics at home while still presenting himself as a liberal sympathiser abroad.
Long-Term French Garrison in Rome
After 1849, French troops remained in Rome to protect the Pope. This reflected Napoleon III’s commitment to Catholic conservatism, but created tension:
Liberals and nationalists in France accused him of betraying Italy’s cause.
The presence of French troops became a long-term obstacle to Italian unification.
Thus, his stance towards Rome was a compromise between ideology and political necessity.
The Crimean War (1853–1856)
Causes and French Involvement
The Crimean War arose from disputes over control of Christian holy places in the Ottoman Empire. Napoleon III saw it as an opportunity to:
Crimean War theatre map (1853) showing the Black Sea, Crimea, and Sevastopol. It situates France’s expeditionary role within the Anglo-French alliance against Russia. Source
Enhance France’s international prestige after decades of decline since Waterloo.
Counterbalance Russian influence in the Near East.
Assert France as a protector of Catholic rights in the Holy Land.
Outcomes
France’s participation in the Crimean War had several effects:
The war ended with French and British victory against Russia, confirmed at the Treaty of Paris (1856).
France regained recognition as a major European power.
Napoleon III strengthened his domestic standing by demonstrating successful leadership in foreign policy.
However, the war achieved little lasting strategic gain beyond prestige.
Italian Policy and Relations with Cavour
Support for Italian Unification
Napoleon III’s relations with Camillo di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, were pivotal. Cavour aimed to unify Italy under Piedmontese leadership, and Napoleon III’s support was decisive.
The Plombières Agreement (1858): Napoleon III secretly agreed with Cavour to support a war against Austria, in exchange for Nice and Savoy.
Map of Italian unification highlighting 1859–60 changes: Lombardy’s annexation to Piedmont and the cession of Nice and Savoy to France. Source
This reflected both his liberal-nationalist sympathies and his desire for territorial compensation.
The 1859 War with Austria
In 1859, France intervened alongside Piedmont in the war against Austria:
French victories at Magenta and Solferino secured Lombardy for Piedmont.
However, Napoleon III suddenly signed the Treaty of Villafranca, ending the war prematurely.
He feared prolonged conflict, rising casualties, and the risk of antagonising both Austria and Catholic opinion.
This partial success allowed Piedmont to expand, but Napoleon III’s hesitation weakened his image as a reliable supporter of Italian nationalism.
Impact of Italian Unification
Napoleon III’s support helped make Italian unification possible, but he was criticised for inconsistency.
He gained Nice and Savoy for France, strengthening national prestige.
However, his withdrawal at Villafranca disappointed both Italians and French liberals.
This reflected the contradictory nature of his policies: he promoted national liberation but often compromised to protect conservative interests.
Overseas Colonisation
Motives for Expansion
Napoleon III pursued overseas colonisation as part of his vision of national greatness. Colonies were seen as a means to:
Expand French economic influence.
Provide prestige and global recognition.
Spread French “civilising mission” ideals.
North Africa
Algeria was expanded under his rule, with intensified settlement by French colonists.
Napoleon III also styled himself as a protector of Muslim culture, trying to win support by portraying France as a benevolent power.
Other Ventures
France extended its reach in Senegal in West Africa.
Exploratory and military missions expanded French influence in Indochina, laying the groundwork for future colonisation.
Napoleon III sought prestige through ambitious, sometimes ill-fated projects, such as the Mexico expedition (though this strayed beyond the specification).
Colonial Policy Characteristics
Napoleon III’s colonisation was:
Pragmatic, seeking economic and strategic gains.
Symbolic, projecting France as a modern imperial power.
Contradictory, balancing between assimilationist policies and respect for local traditions.
Conclusion: Foreign and Imperial Ambitions
Napoleon III’s policies towards the Roman Republic, the Crimean War, Italy, and colonisation reveal recurring themes: pursuit of prestige, balancing between liberal nationalism and Catholic conservatism, and a desire to restore France’s greatness.
FAQ
French Catholics applauded his protection of the Papacy, viewing it as a safeguard of religious authority.
However, liberals and republicans accused him of betraying Italian nationalism. They saw the intervention as hypocritical, since Napoleon III claimed to support national self-determination elsewhere.
This dual backlash revealed how his foreign policy often struggled to balance conservative Catholic support with liberal-nationalist expectations
The French suppression of the Roman Republic reassured conservative monarchies, particularly Austria, that revolutionary movements would not be tolerated.
Yet, Italian nationalists distrusted France, suspecting Napoleon III of opportunism.
The episode established France as a decisive power in Italy, but also tied it to the unpopular role of Papal defender, complicating future relations with Italian unifiers.
Harsh winters and poor supply lines caused significant casualties from disease and exposure.
Communication difficulties between French and British commanders created tension in strategy.
Limited medical support led to high mortality beyond the battlefield.
These difficulties did not undermine victory but revealed weaknesses in nineteenth-century military organisation, highlighting the need for reforms later pursued by Napoleon III.
Despite military success, Napoleon III abruptly ended the war with Austria without consulting Cavour.
This decision alienated Italian nationalists, who felt betrayed, and disappointed French liberals hoping for a stronger stance.
Diplomatically, it made Napoleon appear inconsistent, suggesting he prioritised avoiding prolonged conflict and Catholic discontent over honouring his agreements.
Earlier French administrations emphasised conquest and settler dominance.
Napoleon III, however, promoted the idea of an “Arab kingdom” under French protection. He sought to integrate Algerian elites into governance while encouraging colonisation.
This hybrid approach combined respect for local traditions with expansion of French authority, though in practice settler demands often undermined his more conciliatory vision.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Napoleon III agree to the Plombières Agreement with Cavour, and what territory did France gain as part of the deal?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year: 1858.
1 mark for identifying the territories gained: Nice and Savoy.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Napoleon III supported Cavour and Piedmont in the war against Austria in 1859.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explained reason.
Award marks for the following (or other valid reasons):
Liberal-nationalist sympathies (1 mark): Napoleon III wished to be seen as supporting nationalist movements.
Desire to weaken Austria (1 mark): Austria was a dominant conservative power in Italy; reducing its influence aligned with France’s interests.
Territorial compensation (1 mark): France gained Nice and Savoy in return for its support.
Prestige (1 mark): Intervention provided an opportunity for Napoleon III to increase France’s standing as a European power.
Full marks require development of two separate reasons with explanation of why each motivated Napoleon III.
Answers mentioning more than two reasons should receive credit for the best two developed.
