OCR Specification focus:
‘Main differences between North and South by 1850 including the breakdown of the Missouri Compromise; sectionalism’
Introduction
By 1850, the United States was increasingly divided between North and South, with deep-rooted differences in economy, society, politics, and attitudes towards slavery fuelling sectionalism.
Economic Differences
Industrial North
The North developed a diversified economy based on industry, commerce, and small-scale farming.
Urbanisation expanded rapidly, with cities such as New York and Philadelphia emerging as centres of finance and manufacturing.
The presence of canals, roads, railways, and ports made the region highly connected.
A wage-labour economy developed, meaning that most workers were free labourers employed in factories or on small farms.
The North attracted large numbers of European immigrants, especially from Ireland and Germany, who provided labour for factories and infrastructure projects.
Agricultural South
The South was overwhelmingly agrarian, dependent on large-scale farming of cash crops, particularly cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar.
Plantations relied on enslaved African American labour.
The South exported raw cotton to Northern and British factories, creating economic interdependence but also tensions over tariffs and trade policies.
Urbanisation and industrial development were minimal, leaving the region dependent on agricultural markets.
Sectionalism: Loyalty to the interests of one’s own region (North or South) rather than to the nation as a whole.
These economic differences fostered contrasting identities: the North emphasised progress, innovation, and commerce, while the South defended tradition, landownership, and slavery.
Social and Cultural Contrasts
Northern Society
Increasingly diverse, shaped by immigration and urban culture.
Education levels were higher, with widespread schooling and universities.
A strong religious reform movement promoted causes like abolitionism, temperance, and women’s rights.
Southern Society
Rigid social hierarchy centred on slavery. Planter elites dominated politics and culture.
The majority of white Southerners were small farmers, but they still supported the institution of slavery, which upheld racial and social order.
Religion in the South often justified slavery, with Biblical interpretations used to defend the system.
Political Divisions
Missouri Compromise Breakdown
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 attempted to balance slave and free states by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while banning slavery north of latitude 36°30′.
A labelled map of the Missouri Compromise (1820) marking free states, slave states, and the 36°30′ boundary. It clarifies where slavery was prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase. The map includes additional place labels not required by the syllabus, but these do not obscure the key boundary.
By the 1850s, westward expansion threatened this balance.
The admission of new territories sparked fierce debate over whether slavery should expand westwards.
Missouri Compromise (1820): An agreement regulating slavery in western territories, maintaining the balance between free and slave states.
The compromise’s fragility exposed the deepening sectional divisions and foreshadowed future crises.
Federal versus State Power
The North generally supported a stronger federal government to regulate commerce, tariffs, and internal improvements.
The South favoured states’ rights, particularly in relation to slavery, fearing federal interference would threaten their economic and social system.
Slavery as the Central Issue
Northern Perspectives
Many Northerners were not abolitionists, but they opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories.
The abolitionist movement, led by figures like William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass, gained strength in Northern society.
Free labour ideology suggested that slavery degraded human dignity and stifled economic opportunity for white workers.
Southern Perspectives
The South increasingly referred to slavery as a “positive good”, defending it as vital to civilisation and prosperity.
Expansion of slavery westwards was considered essential to preserve Southern political power in the Union.
Enslaved people resisted in both subtle and overt ways, but Southern leaders tightened slave codes to preserve control.
Sectionalism and National Identity
By 1850, sectional identities had hardened.
The North identified with free labour, industrialisation, reform, and progress.
The South identified with plantation agriculture, slavery, and states’ rights.
Compromises such as that over Missouri delayed but could not resolve the conflict between these contrasting visions of America.
Impacts on National Politics
Sectionalism affected elections, with political parties increasingly splitting along regional lines.
National unity was weakened as compromise became harder to achieve.
The tensions set the stage for the fierce conflicts of the 1850s, including the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
A map of the Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854) highlighting how popular sovereignty superseded the earlier 36°30′ line. It helps students see the geographic scope of the repeal and why it inflamed sectionalism. Source
Key Features of Sectionalism
Economic divergence: industry versus agriculture.
Social contrast: diverse urban culture versus hierarchical rural society.
Political division: federal authority versus states’ rights.
Slavery question: expansion opposed by North, defended by South.
These combined to create an atmosphere of mistrust, rivalry, and competing visions of America, embedding sectionalism into the nation’s political and social fabric.
FAQ
Immigration was concentrated in the North, especially in cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Large numbers of Irish and German immigrants provided labour for factories and infrastructure, strengthening the North’s industrial economy.
By contrast, very few immigrants settled in the South. The dominance of slavery meant less demand for free labour, leaving the South more socially homogeneous and less urbanised than the North.
The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 made cotton processing more efficient, leading to a dramatic expansion of cotton production.
By the mid-19th century, the South produced the majority of the world’s cotton, which was in high demand in British and Northern textile industries. This “Cotton Kingdom” tied the South to slavery, as enslaved labour became essential for maintaining high production levels and profits
Northern churches were often influenced by reformist movements, linking Christianity with campaigns for abolition, temperance, and education. Religious revivals inspired many Northerners to see slavery as a moral evil.
In the South, churches frequently justified slavery, citing Biblical passages to argue that it was a divinely sanctioned institution. This religious divide reinforced sectional hostility and gave slavery a moral as well as economic dimension.
The North generally supported higher tariffs to protect its growing industries from foreign competition. Protectionist policies benefited Northern manufacturers and encouraged domestic production.
The South opposed tariffs because they increased the price of imported goods and threatened cotton exports. Planters preferred free trade with Britain, highlighting the economic divergence between the two regions.
The South’s lack of major urban centres meant slower development of education, infrastructure, and industry compared to the North.
Few cities meant limited opportunities for wage labour and fewer schools or universities.
The plantation system concentrated wealth and power in the hands of an elite minority.
Without significant towns or manufacturing hubs, the South became increasingly dependent on agriculture, reinforcing its sectional identity in opposition to the North’s industrial modernisation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key economic differences between the North and the South of the United States by 1850.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each valid economic difference identified, up to a maximum of 2.
Acceptable points include:
The North was industrial while the South was agricultural (1 mark).
The North relied on free labour whereas the South depended on enslaved labour (1 mark).
The North had extensive rail and canal networks while the South had limited infrastructure (1 mark).
The South specialised in cash crops such as cotton while the North had a more diversified economy (1 mark).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Missouri Compromise contributed to growing sectionalism in the United States.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Limited explanation with generalised statements. May mention Missouri Compromise but with little or no development (e.g., “It caused tension” without detail).
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of how the Missouri Compromise maintained balance but highlighted divisions. May explain the 36°30′ line or mention the admission of Missouri and Maine. Limited linkage to sectionalism.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation of how the Missouri Compromise contributed to sectionalism.
Explains how it temporarily balanced slave and free states but revealed deep divisions.
Recognises its role in reinforcing sectional identities and foreshadowing future disputes over westward expansion.
May include reference to its breakdown by the 1850s and how this undermined compromise as a solution.
