OCR Specification focus:
‘participation in international action in China; the alliance with Britain; relations with Russia and the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905’
Japan’s growing assertiveness in international affairs from the late nineteenth century reshaped its diplomacy, alliances, and rivalries. Its role in China and connection with Britain were central.
Japan’s Participation in International Action in China
The Context of Late Qing China
By the late nineteenth century, China’s weakness following the Opium Wars and internal rebellions invited international interference. Japan, newly modernised after the Meiji Restoration, sought opportunities to assert influence. The Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) had already demonstrated Japan’s rising power, giving it Taiwan and influence over Korea, though the Triple Intervention by Russia, Germany, and France forced it to relinquish some gains.
Japan’s involvement in Chinese affairs intensified with the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901).
Japanese Military Contribution in China
During the Boxer Rebellion, Japan dispatched the largest contingent of troops among the allied powers, numbering over 20,000 soldiers. This had several important effects:
It showcased Japan’s military capability alongside European powers.
It legitimised Japan’s role as a global actor, shifting perceptions of it from a regional player to a power with international responsibilities.
It reinforced Japan’s interest in Chinese markets and territory, particularly Manchuria.
Participation highlighted Japan’s willingness to act within a multinational coalition, but also its desire to secure its own position in East Asia.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)
Background to the Alliance
Japan faced increasing threats from Russia’s expansion in Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion. Britain, meanwhile, was diplomatically isolated, wary of Russian and French ambitions in Asia.
These common interests led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, a landmark agreement.
Photograph of the 30 January 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance document, held in the Japan Foreign Ministry Archives. It provides material evidence of the first formal alliance between a Western and an Asian power. Source
Key Features and Significance
Britain formally recognised Japan’s interests in Korea, while Japan acknowledged Britain’s presence in China.
The alliance balanced Russian expansionism and curbed French influence.
For Britain, it reduced the need to station large naval forces in East Asia.
For Japan, it provided diplomatic prestige and security from European intervention, enhancing its legitimacy as a major power.
This was the first alliance between a Western power and an Asian nation, a dramatic symbol of Japan’s new status.
Relations with Russia and Rising Tensions
Russia’s Expansion in Manchuria
Following the Boxer Rebellion, Russia occupied Manchuria under the pretext of restoring order but showed little intention of withdrawing. At the same time, Japan’s recognition of Korea as essential to its national security and economic expansion directly conflicted with Russian ambitions.
Failed Diplomacy
Japan attempted to negotiate:
Japan proposed recognising Russian influence in Manchuria in exchange for Russia recognising Japanese primacy in Korea.
Russia stalled and instead expanded its military presence.
This failure pushed Japan towards confrontation.
The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
Outbreak of War
In February 1904, without a formal declaration of war, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. This marked the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.
Key Developments
Battle of Port Arthur (1904): Japan’s initial assault weakened Russian naval forces.
Land campaigns in Manchuria: Japanese forces advanced, defeating Russian troops at battles such as Mukden.
Battle of Tsushima (1905): The Japanese navy decisively destroyed the Russian Baltic Fleet, cementing Japan’s naval superiority.
A clean, labelled map tracing the Baltic Fleet’s route from Europe to the Sea of Japan, converging on the Tsushima Strait. Source
Battle of Tsushima (1905): A decisive naval engagement in which the Japanese fleet, under Admiral Tōgō, annihilated the Russian Baltic Fleet. It marked the first modern victory of an Asian power over a European great power.
Outcomes of the War
The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), brokered by US President Theodore Roosevelt, ended the conflict:
Japan gained control over the Liaodong Peninsula, Port Arthur, and the South Manchurian Railway.
Russia recognised Japan’s paramount influence in Korea.
Japan gained the southern half of Sakhalin Island.
Global Significance
Japan emerged as a major world power, with military and diplomatic credibility.
Russia’s defeat weakened its prestige, contributing to internal unrest and the 1905 Russian Revolution.
Western perceptions of Asian nations shifted, as Japan became a model for non-Western modernisation.
Interconnectedness of Actions and Alliances
Japan’s participation in international action in China, its alliance with Britain, and its conflict with Russia were tightly linked:
In China, Japan demonstrated its capability to operate within international frameworks.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance provided the diplomatic foundation that emboldened Japan to confront Russia without fear of European intervention.
Victory in the Russo-Japanese War consolidated Japan’s imperial ambitions and elevated its standing globally.
These events together marked the transition of Japan from a regional power to a key actor in global politics, reflecting its transformation since the Meiji period.
FAQ
Britain had long followed a policy of “splendid isolation” in foreign affairs, avoiding permanent alliances. However, growing tensions with Russia in Asia, the rising challenge of Germany in Europe, and the costs of maintaining naval supremacy across multiple theatres made isolation increasingly impractical.
The alliance with Japan allowed Britain to reduce its naval commitments in East Asia while gaining a partner who could counterbalance Russian expansion.
Japan’s strong military presence during the Boxer Rebellion won it respect internationally but generated suspicion in China.
Many Chinese nationalists saw Japan as another imperialist power exploiting China’s weakness, particularly as Japan’s forces were conspicuous in Beijing and northern provinces. This laid the groundwork for future tensions in Sino-Japanese relations.
British newspapers and political commentators generally praised Japan’s rapid modernisation and military discipline.
The public viewed Japan as a more “civilised” and reliable partner compared to other Asian states. This positive perception helped overcome concerns about aligning with a non-European power for the first time.
Manchuria was rich in natural resources and strategically vital for access to Korea and northern China.
For Japan:
It threatened Japan’s own ambitions in Korea.
Russia’s control over the South Manchurian Railway gave it economic dominance in the region.
The presence of Russian troops close to Korea made Japanese leaders fear encirclement.
The alliance freed Japan from the fear of collective European intervention against it.
This allowed Japan to concentrate its naval resources against Russia, confident that Britain’s global influence would deter other powers. In particular, it encouraged Japan to build a modern navy capable of challenging Russia in the Pacific, laying the groundwork for its decisive victory at Tsushima.
Practice Questions
Mock Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which year was the Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed, and which European power was it primarily directed against?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year as 1902.
1 mark for correctly identifying the European power as Russia.
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Japan’s participation in the Boxer Rebellion and its alliance with Britain in 1902 contributed to its emergence as a recognised international power.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks for a well-developed explanation, using the following indicative content:
1 mark: Recognition that Japan’s military contribution in the Boxer Rebellion (over 20,000 troops) demonstrated its capability alongside Western powers.
1 mark: Japan’s involvement gave it legitimacy and prestige as a participant in multinational coalitions.
1 mark: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 was the first between a Western and an Asian nation, providing symbolic recognition.
1 mark: The alliance offered security against Russia and France, reducing the likelihood of Western intervention against Japan.
1 mark: It gave Japan international diplomatic credibility, showing it was treated as an equal partner.
1 mark: Together, these actions strengthened Japan’s status as an international power, paving the way for further expansion.
Answers should show explanation rather than simple description. Award up to 6 marks according to the depth of analysis and factual accuracy.
