OCR Specification focus:
‘Radicalism and repression in post-war Japan; the 1923 earthquake’
Japan after the First World War entered a turbulent period, marked by radical ideologies, authoritarian repression, and the devastating 1923 Great Kantō Earthquake, which reshaped society and politics.
Post-war Radicalism in Japan
The end of the First World War left Japan both emboldened by victory and unsettled by internal strains. Economic inflation, labour unrest, and political reform movements created fertile ground for radicalism.
Growth of Left-wing Movements
Socialist and communist groups gained momentum, inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917.
The Japan Socialist League (1920) openly advocated Marxist ideas but was swiftly banned by the government.
Underground communist cells developed throughout the 1920s, attracting workers and intellectuals disillusioned with inequality.
Radicalism: The advocacy of fundamental political, social, or economic reform, often involving a challenge to established systems of authority
Labour and Farmers’ Movements
Workers demanded better wages and rights, while tenant farmers protested against landlord exploitation. Strikes increased sharply in 1919–1921, particularly in mining and textile industries. Radicalism was not only urban but also rooted in rural discontent.
State Repression of Radicalism
Rise of State Surveillance
The government, fearful of social revolution, responded with heavy repression.
Police powers were strengthened under the Peace Preservation Law of 1925, targeting subversive groups.
The Special Higher Police (Tokkō) were established to monitor political radicals, suppress strikes, and infiltrate leftist organisations.
Censorship of radical newspapers and academic writings limited free expression.
Repression: The use of state power to restrict, control, or eliminate political opposition, often through laws, policing, and censorship.
Targeting Socialists and Communists
The Communist Party of Japan, founded in 1922, was quickly forced underground. Members were arrested, beaten, or driven into exile. Intellectuals promoting liberal democracy were also pressured, showing that repression extended beyond the far left.
The Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923
On 1 September 1923, the Great Kantō Earthquake struck the Tokyo and Yokohama region. With a magnitude of 7.9, it was one of Japan’s most devastating natural disasters, killing over 100,000 people and destroying vast areas of urban infrastructure.
Map showing the principal burned areas of Tokyo following the Great Kantō Earthquake. It provides a city-wide view that aligns with accounts of firestorms and urban devastation. Source
Immediate Effects
Fires swept through Tokyo, destroying entire neighbourhoods.
Infrastructure collapse left millions homeless and fuelled widespread panic.
Economic disruption deepened post-war instability, intensifying inflation and unemployment.
Social and Political Consequences
The disaster created a climate of fear and suspicion. The state exploited this atmosphere to suppress dissent further.
Korean residents were scapegoated, accused falsely of poisoning wells or starting fires. Mobs, sometimes supported by police, killed thousands in anti-Korean pogroms.
Socialist leaders, including Ōsugi Sakae, were murdered by military police in what became known as the Amakasu Incident.
Public order was restored, but at the cost of civil liberties and increased acceptance of authoritarianism.
Photograph of the Korean “protective” internment camp run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Police on 13 September 1923. It shows how the state concentrated targeted residents during the emergency. Source
Amakasu Incident: The extrajudicial killing of anarchist Ōsugi Sakae, his partner, and his nephew by military police officer Amakasu Masahiko after the 1923 earthquake.
Repression and the Strengthening of the State
The combination of radicalism and disaster reinforced state authoritarianism.
The government used the earthquake as justification to expand police powers permanently.
Radicalism was increasingly framed as a threat to national security rather than legitimate dissent.
By the late 1920s, Japan had developed a political culture where public order outweighed democratic rights.
Longer-term Impacts
Many Japanese intellectuals turned away from socialism and liberalism, fearing violent repression.
Repression of radicals reinforced the growth of nationalism, as the state promoted loyalty to the emperor as a unifying ideology.
The events of 1923 laid foundations for the rise of militarism and erosion of democracy in the following decade.
Key Themes for Study
The post-war context: economic unrest, labour radicalism, and ideological ferment.
The state’s increasing reliance on repression: Peace Preservation Law, Tokkō, censorship.
The 1923 Great Kantō Earthquake: both humanitarian disaster and political turning point.
The targeting of minority groups and radicals: anti-Korean pogroms, Amakasu Incident.
The way repression after 1923 fed into the authoritarian trajectory of 1930s Japan.
FAQ
The Tokkō were central in suppressing dissent during the post-earthquake chaos. They investigated suspected radicals, censored material, and infiltrated labour organisations.
After the earthquake, they extended their activities to monitor Korean residents, socialists, and anarchists under the guise of public safety. This solidified their role as a tool of state repression well into the 1930s.
Anti-Korean prejudice existed before 1923, rooted in Japan’s colonisation of Korea. After the disaster, rumours spread that Koreans were looting, poisoning wells, and committing arson.
These claims justified vigilante violence. Authorities often tolerated or failed to prevent killings, framing repression as a defence of order. The scapegoating reflected wider anxieties about empire and ethnicity.
The murder of anarchist Ōsugi Sakae, his partner Itō Noe, and his nephew by Amakasu Masahiko revealed the willingness of the military police to use extrajudicial violence.
Public awareness of the killings generated both outrage among liberals and fear among radicals. Rather than punishment, Amakasu received a short prison term, reinforcing the perception that military police operated above the law.
Emergency decrees normalised government intervention in daily life.
Censorship laws tightened as radicals were silenced under the pretext of crisis.
Police powers expanded permanently, shaping a security state.
The earthquake created a precedent where national emergencies justified repression, eroding trust in democratic politics and reinforcing loyalty to authoritarian institutions.
The disaster destroyed factories, warehouses, and docks vital to trade. Fires consumed business districts, while railways and roads collapsed, paralysing transport.
Recovery costs were immense, straining state finances and driving inflation higher. Unemployment surged as businesses closed, intensifying worker discontent. This fed into post-war radicalism while simultaneously giving the government reason to tighten control.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give one example of a radical group in Japan after the First World War, and state how the government responded to it.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying a radical group, e.g. Japan Socialist League or Communist Party of Japan.
1 mark for describing the government’s response, e.g. banning, arresting members, forcing underground.
(Max 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two consequences of the Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923 for Japanese society and politics.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per consequence.
1 mark for identifying a valid consequence, e.g. anti-Korean violence, Amakasu Incident, expansion of police powers, or strengthening of repression.
1–2 further marks for explanation/development, e.g.
Anti-Korean violence: “Rumours led to mass killings of Koreans, often tolerated or supported by police, showing scapegoating and social tensions.”
Amakasu Incident: “Socialist leaders such as Ōsugi Sakae were murdered by military police, demonstrating state willingness to use violence to eliminate radicals.”
Police powers: “Authorities used the emergency to expand surveillance and censorship permanently, embedding authoritarianism.”
(Max 6 marks)
