OCR Specification focus:
‘The impact of the Great Depression on international relations; Italian foreign policy 1935–1941.’
The Great Depression of the 1930s reshaped international relations by destabilising economies, fuelling extremist politics, and altering diplomatic priorities. Italy, under Mussolini, exploited this upheaval.
The Impact of the Great Depression on International Relations
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered a global economic crisis, with severe consequences for both domestic and foreign policy across Europe and beyond.
Economic Effects
Global trade collapsed, with international exports falling dramatically.
Countries adopted protectionist measures (tariffs, quotas, currency devaluation), undermining international cooperation.
Rising unemployment encouraged the growth of extremist movements.
Weakened economies reduced the capacity of states to enforce peace agreements.
Political Consequences
The economic downturn reshaped political landscapes worldwide:
Germany: Economic collapse paved the way for Adolf Hitler’s rise in 1933, as promises of recovery and national revival appealed to the unemployed and desperate.
Britain and France: Both turned inward, focusing on economic recovery and domestic stability, weakening their willingness to intervene abroad.
USA: Adopted isolationist policies, such as the Neutrality Acts, limiting involvement in European and Asian conflicts.
Japan: Pursued territorial expansion in Manchuria (1931), aiming to secure raw materials for economic recovery.
Strain on International Diplomacy
The League of Nations proved ineffective, as economic rivalries encouraged nations to act unilaterally.
Efforts at collective security collapsed as states prioritised national interests.
The Depression encouraged aggressive foreign policies as governments sought to distract from domestic crises.
Italian Foreign Policy, 1935–1941
Benito Mussolini aimed to transform Italy into a great power, pursuing expansionist policies that intensified after the economic hardships of the Depression.
Mussolini’s Foreign Policy Goals
Establish a new Roman Empire in Africa and the Mediterranean.
Enhance Italy’s prestige as a world power.
Secure resources and markets for Italy’s struggling economy.
Balance relations between Britain, France, and Germany to Italy’s advantage.
Autarky: A policy of economic self-sufficiency, aimed at reducing reliance on foreign imports through territorial expansion or domestic production.
The Abyssinian Crisis, 1935–1936
Italy invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935.
Campaign map of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War showing Italian advances and Ethiopian counter-offensives up to February 1936. The arrows and front lines visualise how Italy achieved a rapid victory that exposed the weakness of collective security. Source
The League of Nations imposed sanctions but failed to restrict oil exports, rendering them ineffective.
Britain and France, prioritising their own interests, attempted the Hoare–Laval Pact, proposing to divide Abyssinia, which undermined League credibility.
Result: Mussolini turned towards Hitler, marking a shift in alliances.
Alignment with Germany
The Rome–Berlin Axis (1936) formalised cooperation with Nazi Germany.
Italy supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), cementing ties with Hitler while alienating Britain and France.
Participation in the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937) reinforced anti-communist cooperation with Germany and Japan.
Expansion in Europe and the Mediterranean
Mussolini annexed Albania in 1939, demonstrating ambition in the Balkans.
Italy sought to dominate the Mediterranean (‘Mare Nostrum’), threatening British and French interests.
Map indicating the maximum extent of the Italian Empire around 1940, including Italian East Africa and Albania. It visually summarises Mussolini’s expansionist goals that reshaped Mediterranean geopolitics on the eve of Italy’s entry into the war. Some depictions may reflect the maximum extent reached during the early war years, which slightly exceeds the pre-war build-up. Source
Entry into the Second World War
Initially hesitant, Mussolini declared ‘non-belligerence’ in 1939, awaiting favourable conditions.
Italy entered the war in June 1940 after France’s defeat, seeking easy gains.
Italian campaigns in North Africa and Greece (1940–41) revealed military weakness, leading to German intervention.
‘Parallel war’: Mussolini’s concept that Italy would fight alongside Germany but pursue its own independent war aims, particularly in the Mediterranean.
Consequences of Mussolini’s Policies
Italian prestige suffered due to poor military performance.
Economic strains of warfare worsened the Depression’s effects domestically.
Italy became increasingly dependent on Germany, losing autonomy in foreign policy.
Links Between the Depression and Mussolini’s Policies
The Great Depression directly influenced Mussolini’s foreign policy:
Economic hardship intensified the pursuit of autarky through territorial expansion.
The inability of Britain, France, and the USA to respond effectively encouraged Mussolini’s aggression.
Italy’s alignment with Germany reflected both the failure of the League and the reconfiguration of international relations during the 1930s.
Key Themes for Study
The failure of collective security in the face of economic crisis.
The connection between economic instability and the rise of authoritarian aggression.
The transformation of Italy from a cautious participant in European diplomacy to a committed Axis power by 1941.
FAQ
The Depression weakened Britain’s economy, making large-scale rearmament politically and financially difficult. As a result, leaders preferred appeasement to avoid costly wars.
Public opinion also supported peace, with many Britons believing economic recovery should take priority over foreign entanglements.
This reluctance to confront aggression encouraged states like Italy and Germany to take risks, knowing Britain’s deterrent capacity was limited.
The invasion destroyed confidence in the League of Nations, as its inability to enforce sanctions highlighted the weakness of collective security.
It also drove Mussolini closer to Hitler. The crisis marked the turning point where Italy shifted from being a potential ally of Britain and France to aligning with Germany.
This realignment reshaped European diplomacy, undermining the fragile balance of power established after the First World War.
Mussolini used propaganda to present expansion as restoring Italy’s Roman legacy and solving economic hardship through empire building.
Key themes included:
Celebrating military conquests as proof of national strength.
Glorifying the vision of Mare Nostrum (Italy’s control of the Mediterranean).
Depicting sanctions and criticism as evidence of foreign hostility, which rallied public support.
Propaganda masked Italy’s military weaknesses and helped sustain domestic backing for risky ventures abroad.
The Depression left Italy struggling with unemployment, poor industrial output, and agricultural inefficiency. Expansion was seen as a solution.
Empire provided:
Access to raw materials (oil, coal, metals).
New markets for Italian goods.
Prestige that offset domestic hardship.
However, constant military campaigns drained resources, making Italy increasingly reliant on Germany by the late 1930s.
In 1939, Italy’s military and economy were unprepared for major conflict. Mussolini declared “non-belligerence” to buy time.
By mid-1940, France was collapsing under German attack. Mussolini saw an opportunity to claim territory with minimal effort, fearing Italy might otherwise miss out on the spoils of war.
This opportunism led to Italy’s entry on Germany’s side, despite continued economic and military weakness.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two reasons why Mussolini pursued expansionist foreign policies after 1935.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified (maximum 2).
Acceptable answers include:To secure raw materials and markets for Italy’s struggling economy.
To enhance Italy’s prestige as a great power.
To achieve Mussolini’s vision of a new Roman Empire.
To promote autarky and reduce dependence on foreign imports.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which the Great Depression influenced international relations in the 1930s.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic statements with little explanation, e.g. “The Depression made countries poorer.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of one way, or limited explanation of two ways, showing some understanding of international consequences.
Example: “The Depression encouraged protectionism, which reduced cooperation and harmed international trade.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear explanation of two ways, showing developed understanding of wider impact on international relations.
Example: “The Depression created economic hardship in Germany, which Hitler exploited to gain power and pursue aggressive policies. It also weakened Britain and France, as economic struggles meant they avoided confrontation abroad, undermining collective security.”
