OCR Specification focus:
‘The Constituent Assembly, Lenin decrees; Civil War, White forces, foreign intervention, Red Army, ‘war communism’, reasons for Bolshevik victory/White defeat.’
The struggle for power in revolutionary Russia between 1917 and 1921 transformed the nation’s political, economic, and social order, laying the foundation of Soviet rule.
The Constituent Assembly
The Constituent Assembly was elected in late 1917, intended to draft a democratic constitution for Russia. Elections were held across the former empire with broad participation.
The Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) won the majority of seats, reflecting peasant support.
The Bolsheviks, despite their success in urban areas, won only about a quarter of the vote.
Lenin rejected this outcome, claiming that Soviets better represented the workers’ and peasants’ interests.
In January 1918, the Assembly met for one day before being forcibly dissolved by the Red Guards under Bolshevik orders.
Constituent Assembly: A body elected to create a democratic constitution, dissolved by Lenin after its first meeting in January 1918.
This act confirmed the Bolsheviks’ intention to establish one-party rule and to marginalise political pluralism.
Lenin’s Decrees
After seizing power in November 1917, Lenin issued a series of decrees to consolidate Bolshevik authority and appeal to mass support:
Decree on Peace (1917): Called for immediate peace negotiations to end Russia’s participation in the First World War.
Decree on Land (1917): Legalised peasant seizures of land from landlords, aligning with SR policies.
Decree on Workers’ Control (1917): Gave workers authority to supervise factories and production.
Decree on Nationalities (1917): Allowed self-determination for ethnic minorities, though in practice independence was rarely tolerated.
These decrees were popular but also pragmatic, as they gave legitimacy to what was already happening at grassroots level, while strengthening Bolshevik authority.
The Russian Civil War (1918–1921)
The Civil War erupted between the Bolshevik Reds and a range of White opponents.
White Forces
The Whites were a loose coalition united only by opposition to Bolshevism:
Former tsarist officers and monarchists seeking restoration.
Liberals aiming for constitutional democracy.
Nationalist groups seeking independence, such as in Ukraine and the Caucasus.
SRs and Mensheviks who rejected Bolshevik rule.
Their lack of unity, coordination, and consistent political vision fatally undermined their cause.
Foreign Intervention
The Civil War was complicated by the intervention of foreign powers:
Britain, France, Japan, and the USA sent troops and supplies, motivated by hostility to communism and hope of re-establishing an Eastern Front against Germany.
Foreign involvement was limited and half-hearted, often resented by Russians as imperialist interference.
The Red Army
The Bolsheviks’ success rested heavily on the Red Army, organised and commanded by Leon Trotsky.
Trotsky reintroduced discipline, including harsh punishments for desertion.
He employed ex-tsarist officers under close political supervision.
Effective use of propaganda ensured ideological commitment.
The Bolsheviks controlled central Russia, including Petrograd and Moscow, and benefited from better communication via railways.
Schematic map of the western fronts in the Russian Civil War, 1918–1920, indicating Bolshevik-held areas and maximum White advances. It highlights the Reds’ central position and control of major urban hubs. Extra detail beyond the syllabus: some regional place names and boundaries appear, but they directly clarify front lines and advances. Source
Red Army: The military force of the Bolsheviks, established in 1918 under Trotsky, which secured victory in the Russian Civil War.
War Communism
To sustain the Red Army, the Bolsheviks introduced War Communism between 1918 and 1921.
Grain requisitioning: Peasants were forced to hand over food supplies.
Nationalisation: Industry and banks placed under state control.
Labour discipline: Strikes were banned, working hours extended.
Rationing: Urban populations were supplied with food by the state.
Although deeply unpopular and contributing to famine, War Communism ensured the Red Army’s needs were prioritised.
War Communism: The Bolshevik economic system during the Civil War, based on centralised control, requisitioning, and suppression of private trade.
Reasons for Bolshevik Victory and White Defeat
Bolshevik Strengths
Central geographic position allowed better communication, supply, and troop movement.
Trotsky’s leadership and disciplined Red Army.
Ideological clarity, promising workers’ and peasants’ support.
Control of major cities provided access to industry and railways.
White Weaknesses
Disunity: Fragmented political aims and leadership rivalries.
Geographic disadvantage: Scattered forces operating on distant fronts.
Alienation of peasants, as Whites were associated with landowners and repression.
Foreign intervention failure, which fuelled Bolshevik propaganda about defending Russia from imperialism.
Other Contributing Factors
Terror tactics: The Cheka, secret police, suppressed opposition through executions and intimidation.
Propaganda: Effective use of posters, speeches, and newspapers to mobilise support.
Peasant pragmatism: Despite opposition to requisitioning, many peasants feared a White victory would restore landlords.
Ultimately, the Civil War destroyed alternatives to Bolshevik rule and entrenched the one-party state. By 1921, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, but at the cost of immense human and economic suffering.
FAQ
Lenin claimed Soviets represented the true will of workers and peasants, being based on class rather than universal suffrage.
He argued that the Constituent Assembly reflected outdated bourgeois democracy, whereas Soviets embodied revolutionary democracy. This ideological stance justified the Assembly’s dissolution.
Foreign troops and supplies aided White armies, preventing quick Bolshevik victory.
However, intervention was fragmented:
Britain and France sought to reopen the Eastern Front.
Japan pursued territorial gains in Siberia.
The USA offered limited logistical support.
This inconsistency created little strategic impact, but provided Bolsheviks with propaganda to rally support against “imperialist invasion.”
For workers: rationing provided some food security, but harsh labour discipline and declining factory conditions reduced morale.
For peasants: grain requisitioning created resentment, leading to armed uprisings such as the Tambov Rebellion.
The contrast highlighted the tension between sustaining the Red Army and alienating the rural base.
The coalition was ideologically divided:
Monarchists sought restoration of the Tsar.
Liberals wanted constitutional democracy.
Nationalists prioritised independence.
These conflicting aims prevented coherent propaganda or shared military strategy. Peasants distrusted them, fearing return of landowners, further weakening their cause.
The Cheka, created in 1917, acted as a political police force.
Its functions included:
Suppressing counter-revolutionaries through arrests, executions, and intimidation.
Enforcing War Communism measures such as grain requisitioning.
Using terror to eliminate opposition both within Bolshevik ranks and outside.
This ruthless approach bolstered Bolshevik control but generated deep resentment among the population.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In what year did the Bolsheviks dissolve the Constituent Assembly?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the year 1918.
0 marks for incorrect or incomplete dates.
(Maximum 2 marks available.)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Bolsheviks were able to win the Civil War between 1918 and 1921.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained clearly and supported with accurate knowledge.
Rewardable reasons include (but are not limited to):
Geographical advantage: Bolsheviks controlled central Russia, key cities (Petrograd, Moscow), and railways.
1 mark for identifying geography.
2 marks for explanation of how it supported communication, supply, and industrial resources.
Leadership and discipline of the Red Army under Trotsky.
1 mark for identifying Trotsky’s role.
2 marks for explaining how discipline, propaganda, and reorganisation contributed to military effectiveness.
Other valid answers may include: Bolshevik propaganda, disunity of White forces, effective use of War Communism, Cheka terror.
Maximum 6 marks: 2 developed explanations (up to 3 marks each).
