OCR Specification focus:
‘independence in the Philippines and Roxas), US involvement with Jiang Jieshi, the reasons for the fall of China to Communism in 1949 and US reactions, defensive perimeter strategy 1949 and’
The early Cold War in Asia was shaped by decolonisation, civil war, and strategic competition. US policymakers adapted to the shifting balance of power, seeking to contain Communism’s spread.
Independence in the Philippines
Background
The Philippines had been under US colonial rule since 1898 following the Spanish–American War. After Japanese occupation during the Second World War, Washington faced pressure to grant independence while maintaining influence in the region.
Granting Independence
On 4 July 1946, the Philippines became an independent republic.
The first president was Manuel Roxas, closely aligned with the United States.
The Bell Trade Act (1946) tied the new state economically to the US, ensuring American access to markets and raw materials.
Roxas’ Leadership
Roxas relied heavily on US financial and military support to stabilise the new nation.
His government faced opposition from the Hukbalahap (Huk) guerrillas, a Communist-influenced peasant movement formed during the Japanese occupation.
US aid was vital in suppressing the rebellion, though the insurgency revealed deep socio-economic inequalities.
Roxas’ policies cemented a neo-colonial relationship: independence was political, but dependency on Washington remained.
Neo-colonialism: A system where a state is formally independent but remains economically and politically dependent on a more powerful country.
The Philippines became a model state in American eyes, demonstrating that post-colonial governments could remain firmly within the Western bloc.
On 4 July 1946 the United States formally recognised Philippine independence; Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Third Republic.
General Douglas MacArthur greets President Manuel Roxas at the 1946 independence ceremonies in Manila, symbolising the formal transfer of power and continued US influence. Source
US Policy Towards China and Taiwan
US Support for Jiang Jieshi
The Chinese Civil War (1945–1949) resumed after Japan’s defeat, pitting Jiang Jieshi’s Nationalists (Kuomintang, KMT) against Mao Zedong’s Communists.
The United States supported Jiang with arms, supplies, and financial backing.
However, corruption, poor leadership, and lack of popular support weakened the Nationalists.
Despite US assistance, the KMT failed to halt Communist advances.
The Fall of China to Communism
By October 1949, Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. Jiang and the remnants of the KMT retreated to Taiwan (Formosa).
Reasons for the Communist victory:
Widespread peasant support due to Communist promises of land reform.
Effective guerrilla tactics honed during resistance against Japan.
Nationalist disunity, corruption, and alienation of the rural population.
Limited effectiveness of US aid, as American officials grew sceptical of Jiang’s regime.
Land reform: Redistribution of land from large landowners to peasants, often used by revolutionary movements to gain mass rural support.
In 1948–49 the Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns destroyed Nationalist field armies and precipitated the fall of China to Communism (1949).
This campaign map shows the PLA’s offensives during 1949, highlighting major Communist advances and captured cities. It illustrates how the KMT’s military collapse enabled the proclamation of the PRC. Source
US Reactions
The “Loss of China” was a major shock to Washington. Many Americans believed stronger intervention could have prevented Communist victory.
Domestic political impact: intensified McCarthyism and accusations that the Truman administration had been “soft on Communism.”
Military response: The United States strengthened ties with Asian allies, including Taiwan, Japan, and the Philippines.
Recognition policy: The US refused to recognise the PRC and maintained official diplomatic recognition of Jiang’s government in Taiwan, considering it the “true China.”
Defensive Perimeter Strategy (1949)
In early 1949, the US reassessed its commitments in Asia. Secretary of State Dean Acheson articulated the Defensive Perimeter Strategy in a speech to the National Press Club in January 1950.
The US would defend a line stretching from the Aleutians to Japan, the Ryukyus, and the Philippines.
Taiwan and South Korea were notably excluded from this perimeter, reflecting uncertainty about their strategic value at the time.
The strategy demonstrated America’s shift from ad hoc aid to a regional containment policy.
Containment: A US Cold War strategy aimed at preventing the expansion of Communism beyond its existing borders.
Although the Defensive Perimeter suggested Taiwan was outside the immediate zone of defence, the outbreak of the Korean War (1950) quickly changed US policy. Washington placed Taiwan under American protection, ensuring it remained a Cold War stronghold.
The Broader Context of US Policy
Regional Strategy
The combination of:
Philippine independence under Roxas (a loyal ally),
The fall of China to Communism, and
The Defensive Perimeter Strategy
demonstrated both the challenges and contradictions of US policy in Asia. While Washington sought to build model states such as Japan and the Philippines, the loss of China revealed the limits of American influence in civil conflicts.
Significance
The Philippines provided the US with strategic bases in the Pacific, reinforcing its ability to project power.
Taiwan became a symbolic and strategic outpost in the fight against Communism.
The events of 1946–1949 set the stage for deeper US engagement in Asia, culminating in the Korean War and later involvement in Indochina.
FAQ
The US wanted to maintain economic influence over the Philippines after independence. The Act granted Americans equal access to Philippine natural resources and imposed fixed exchange rates favourable to US trade.
It ensured that the Philippines remained within the American economic orbit, providing markets for US exports and sources of raw materials during the early Cold War.
The Hukbalahap, originally an anti-Japanese resistance group, continued after 1945, demanding land reform and peasant rights.
Roxas branded them a Communist insurgency, justifying harsh counter-insurgency measures.
US assistance in arms and funding allowed suppression but also exposed inequalities in rural society.
The rebellion highlighted the fragility of independence and dependence on American support.
American diplomats and military observers criticised Jiang’s leadership.
Corruption in his government diverted US aid to personal gain.
His army suffered from low morale and poor discipline.
He alienated rural populations by failing to implement meaningful reforms.
Although the US saw him as a bulwark against Communism, many doubted he could effectively govern or defeat the Communists.
These campaigns, fought between late 1948 and early 1949, destroyed key Nationalist forces.
Liaoshen: secured Manchuria for the Communists.
Huaihai: encircled and annihilated large Nationalist armies in central China.
Pingjin: captured Beijing and Tianjin, securing northern China.
Together, they crippled Jiang’s military capacity and opened the path for the Communist advance to the Yangtze.
US policymakers viewed Taiwan as a marginal strategic asset in 1949, focusing instead on defending Japan and the Philippines.
They believed Taiwan could not be defended easily against Communist China and that committing to it might overstretch American resources.
The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, however, reversed this view, and the US soon placed Taiwan under direct protection, recognising its strategic and symbolic importance.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Who became the first president of the independent Philippines in 1946?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying Manuel Roxas.
0 marks for an incorrect or incomplete answer.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Chinese Communist Party was able to defeat the Nationalists in 1949.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained (maximum 6).
1 mark for identifying a valid reason (e.g., peasant support, Nationalist corruption, effective guerrilla tactics, land reform promises, poor leadership, lack of popular support for Jiang).
1–2 further marks for developing the explanation with contextual detail.
Example: “The Communists gained widespread peasant support because they promised land reform, which attracted millions of rural followers (2 marks for development).”
Example: “The Nationalists lost support due to corruption and poor leadership, which weakened their army’s effectiveness and alienated the population (2 marks for development).”
Maximum 2 reasons may be credited.
