OCR Specification focus:
‘The situation in 1941, Capitalism and Communism and general attitudes in East and West; wartime tensions in the Grand Alliance.’
The outbreak of the Second World War created an unlikely alliance between states with profoundly different ideologies. By 1941, deep tensions underlay cooperation, shaping the later Cold War.
The Situation in 1941
In 1941, the global balance of power was defined by the struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies. The invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa) and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought both the Soviet Union and the United States into the war alongside Britain, forming the so-called Grand Alliance.
Map of the Eastern Front, showing German advances from 21 June to 5 December 1941 and dated front lines. It highlights the rapid Axis penetration and the extent of Soviet retreat before the December counter-offensive outside Moscow. Labels and a simple legend help students track the evolving front across mid–late 1941. Source
Despite a united military purpose, this alliance was fundamentally fragile. The USSR, USA, and Britain held distinct political, economic, and cultural systems that shaped their attitudes towards cooperation and the post-war order.
The East–West Divide in Ideology
Capitalism dominated in the USA and Britain. It emphasised private ownership, free markets, multiparty democracy, and individual freedoms.
Communism defined the Soviet system, with state ownership of industry, central economic planning, and a one-party dictatorship.
Capitalism: An economic and political system based on private property, free enterprise, and democratic governance.
The Soviet Union promoted the idea of a global struggle between the working class and bourgeois capitalism. Stalin distrusted the West, viewing it as hostile to communism and prone to imperialism.
Communism: A political and economic ideology seeking to establish a classless society based on collective ownership and the abolition of private property.
This ideological clash did not disappear in wartime; instead, it created latent tensions within the Grand Alliance.
General Attitudes in the East and West
Soviet Perspective
The USSR had suffered immensely from German invasion, enduring catastrophic losses and destruction.
Stalin’s security concerns were paramount: he wanted guarantees of territorial buffers in Eastern Europe to prevent future invasions.
Stalin distrusted both Britain and the USA, believing they had deliberately delayed opening a Second Front in Western Europe, leaving the USSR to bear the brunt of fighting.
Western Perspective
Britain, led by Winston Churchill, sought to preserve its empire while defeating Hitler. Churchill distrusted communism, seeing it as a threat to European stability.
The USA, under Franklin D. Roosevelt, entered the war with a vision of defending democracy and free markets. Roosevelt hoped for post-war international cooperation but was cautious of Stalin’s ambitions.
Western leaders feared Soviet expansionism, interpreting Stalin’s demands in Eastern Europe as evidence of imperial designs.
Wartime Tensions in the Grand Alliance
The Grand Alliance was often described as a “marriage of convenience”, held together by the urgent necessity of defeating Nazi Germany rather than by trust or shared vision.
Sources of Tension
Delayed Second Front: Stalin repeatedly pressed for a Western invasion of Europe to relieve pressure on the USSR. The delay until 1944 deepened Soviet suspicions.
Territorial Disputes: Stalin demanded recognition of Soviet control over the Baltic States and parts of Poland. Britain and the USA were wary of endorsing these annexations.
Different War Aims:
The USSR wanted long-term security through territorial buffers.
The USA emphasised self-determination of nations and the future role of the United Nations.
Britain sought to protect imperial and European interests.
Personality Clashes: Roosevelt’s idealism, Churchill’s pragmatism, and Stalin’s suspicion often clashed, making cooperation difficult.
Specific Tensions in Practice
Stalin accused the West of seeking to bleed the USSR dry by refusing to open the Second Front earlier.
Churchill remained wary of Soviet intentions in Eastern Europe, seeking to limit Moscow’s influence.
Roosevelt tried to bridge the gap, but his failing health limited his effectiveness in resolving disputes.
The Grand Alliance: Cooperation Amid Distrust
Despite these tensions, the Grand Alliance managed to coordinate major military operations:
The Lend-Lease Act (1941) provided vital American aid to the USSR.
Joint planning led to operations such as the D-Day landings (1944).
Regular conferences ensured communication, though they often exposed underlying disagreements.
However, the ideological fault lines and wartime grievances established during this period laid the groundwork for the post-1945 Cold War.
Key Points to Remember
The Grand Alliance was based on necessity, not trust.
Ideological differences between capitalism and communism underpinned much of the wartime tension.
Stalin’s security demands in Eastern Europe clashed with Western principles of self-determination.
The issue of the Second Front symbolised mutual suspicion.
Wartime cooperation masked deep hostility that would re-emerge once Germany was defeated.
FAQ
The Grand Alliance united Britain, the USA, and the USSR against a common enemy—Nazi Germany. However, the allies shared no long-term political or ideological goals.
Stalin sought territorial buffers and Soviet security, Roosevelt hoped for a liberal international order, and Churchill wanted to preserve Britain’s global influence. Cooperation existed only because victory over Hitler was essential. Once that objective faded, underlying distrust resurfaced.
Operation Barbarossa forced Stalin to seek Western support despite deep mistrust. The invasion highlighted the USSR’s vulnerability and need for supplies and military coordination.
This brought the USSR into alliance with capitalist states it had previously denounced as enemies. It also shifted Allied strategy towards discussions on how best to share the war burden, laying the groundwork for post-war disagreements.
Propaganda was essential for presenting the alliance as united despite divisions.
In the West, newspapers portrayed the USSR as a heroic defender against fascism, temporarily downplaying communist repression.
Soviet propaganda emphasised Western aid but stressed that the Red Army bore the brunt of the fighting.
This created unrealistic expectations about trust and equality within the alliance, contributing to future disillusionment.
The USSR suffered the heaviest casualties in 1941 and wanted immediate Western military relief. Stalin believed an invasion of Western Europe would force Hitler to divide his forces.
The West, however, argued resources and planning made such an operation impossible at that stage. The delay fuelled Stalin’s suspicions that Britain and the USA were deliberately letting the USSR bleed, shaping mistrust even before victory was assured.
Churchill distrusted Stalin deeply, viewing communism as a dangerous ideology and doubting Soviet long-term intentions. He cooperated out of necessity but sought to limit Soviet influence in Europe.
Roosevelt, by contrast, hoped to manage Stalin through diplomacy. He believed personal contact and cooperation could draw the USSR into a future international system based on the United Nations. This divergence created different approaches to alliance politics.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two key ideological differences between capitalism and communism in 1941.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct difference identified (up to 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:Capitalism emphasised private ownership of property and businesses.
Communism emphasised collective or state ownership of property and industry.
Capitalism supported multiparty democracy and individual freedoms.
Communism was based on one-party rule and the suppression of opposition.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why there were tensions within the Grand Alliance in 1941.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements, limited explanation.
E.g. “They disagreed over ideology” or “Stalin wanted security.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanations of reasons with some contextual knowledge.
E.g. “There was tension because of ideological differences: the West supported democracy and free markets, while Stalin believed in communism and distrusted capitalism.”
“Stalin also wanted security in Eastern Europe and believed Britain and the USA delayed opening a Second Front, which made him suspicious of their intentions.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanations showing understanding of causation and significance.
E.g. “Tensions arose because of deep ideological differences between communism and capitalism. Stalin believed the capitalist West was inherently hostile and sought to undermine the Soviet Union, while Britain and the USA feared communist expansion. Furthermore, tensions were heightened by Stalin’s demand for a Second Front, which he believed the Allies deliberately delayed. This suspicion deepened mistrust, as the USSR felt abandoned while fighting the majority of German forces.”
Maximum 2 developed explanations required for full marks.
