OCR Specification focus:
‘the pressure of the arms race; Gorbachev, glasnost and perestroika, Afghanistan, events of 1989 in Eastern Europe’
The final phase of the Cold War saw the combination of intense military pressure from the arms race and fundamental reforms under Mikhail Gorbachev, which reshaped Europe.
The Pressure of the Arms Race
The arms race was a defining feature of the Cold War from its inception, but during the late 1970s and early 1980s it intensified dramatically. The Soviet Union, already burdened with economic inefficiencies, struggled to keep pace with the technological and financial power of the United States.
US Strategy and Military Build-Up
Under President Ronald Reagan, US military expenditure surged, with investment in advanced weapons systems, including Stealth bombers and new missile programmes.
The announcement of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) in 1983 threatened to undermine the nuclear balance by potentially creating a missile shield for the US.
This initiative placed psychological and financial pressure on the USSR, which lacked the economic and technological resources to compete effectively.
Impact on the Soviet Union
The Soviet military-industrial complex consumed an estimated 25% of GDP, diverting resources from consumer goods and social development. This created growing discontent among the population as living standards stagnated. The arms race not only intensified the superpower rivalry but also revealed the structural weaknesses of the Soviet economy.
Arms Race: A sustained competition between rival states to accumulate and develop military capabilities, particularly nuclear weapons, in pursuit of strategic advantage.
Gorbachev’s Rise to Power
In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party. Unlike his predecessors, he recognised the unsustainable nature of the arms race and the failing Soviet economy. His aim was to reform the USSR internally and reduce tensions externally.
Glasnost and Perestroika
Glasnost (meaning "openness") introduced greater transparency, public debate, and freedom of expression. This weakened censorship and allowed criticism of government policies.
Perestroika (meaning "restructuring") was an attempt to modernise and decentralise the economy by allowing limited market mechanisms, private enterprise, and foreign investment.
Glasnost: Policy introduced by Gorbachev in the 1980s that promoted openness, greater freedom of information, and reduced censorship in the Soviet Union.
Perestroika: A programme of political and economic reform introduced by Gorbachev to restructure the Soviet economy through limited decentralisation and market mechanisms.
Reducing Tensions with the West
Gorbachev sought to reduce Cold War hostility through negotiations:
He held four summit meetings with Reagan between 1985 and 1988.
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty of 1987 eliminated a whole category of nuclear weapons, marking a turning point in superpower relations.
By shifting policy away from confrontation, Gorbachev relieved some of the pressure of the arms race.
The Afghan War
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 had become a long and draining conflict. Despite heavy military involvement, the USSR faced stiff resistance from the Mujahideen, who were supported with arms and funding by the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan.
The war consumed vast resources and contributed to the USSR’s international isolation.
In 1986, Gorbachev declared Afghanistan a "bleeding wound" and began the process of withdrawal, which was completed in 1989.
This retreat symbolised the decline of Soviet power projection and a willingness to end costly foreign entanglements.
Soviet T-62M departing Afghanistan during the publicised withdrawal. The pull-out, accelerated under Gorbachev, followed the 1988 Geneva Accords and concluded in February 1989. This image illustrates the military drawdown that relieved pressure on the Soviet economy and foreign policy. Source
The Events of 1989 in Eastern Europe
Gorbachev’s reforms had unintended consequences across Eastern Europe. His decision to abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine—which had justified intervention in satellite states to preserve communism—allowed reform movements to flourish.
The Collapse of Soviet Control
In Poland, the trade union Solidarity, led by Lech Wałęsa, negotiated free elections, leading to the first non-Communist government in the Eastern bloc.
In Hungary, border controls with Austria were dismantled, opening a pathway for East Germans to flee westwards.
In East Germany, mass protests and the weakening of Soviet support led to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989.
In Czechoslovakia, the Velvet Revolution ended Communist rule peacefully.
In Romania, protests escalated into violent revolution, leading to the overthrow and execution of Nicolae Ceaușescu.
Gorbachev’s Role
By refusing to use Soviet military force, Gorbachev allowed these revolutions to succeed. While this marked a victory for national self-determination, it also hastened the collapse of Soviet influence in Europe.
The Baltic Way (1989): a 600-km human chain linking Tallinn, Riga and Vilnius. The demonstration symbolised mass, peaceful resistance to Soviet rule and anticipated the political breakthroughs of late 1989. Source
The Combined Effect of Pressure and Reform
The late Cold War was shaped by the intersection of external military pressure and internal reformist policies:
The arms race revealed the fragility of the Soviet system, forcing a search for alternatives.
Gorbachev’s policies aimed to revitalise socialism but instead unleashed forces that dismantled Soviet authority both domestically and internationally.
The events of 1989 demonstrated how quickly the Eastern bloc could unravel once Soviet backing was withdrawn.
This dynamic environment set the stage for the final dissolution of the USSR in 1991, marking the definitive end of the Cold War in Europe.
FAQ
The SDI, announced in 1983, sought to develop a missile defence system using advanced technology such as space-based lasers.
For the USSR, it posed both a military and psychological challenge. Even if incomplete, the initiative threatened the principle of mutually assured destruction by potentially shielding the United States from retaliation.
Soviet scientists and planners understood they lacked the technological base and financial resources to compete. This deepened anxiety in the Kremlin and reinforced Gorbachev’s urgency to pursue arms control talks with the West.
By the 1980s, approximately one-quarter of the Soviet GDP was directed towards defence.
This heavy spending meant fewer resources for consumer industries and housing, leading to shortages and stagnation in living standards. Investment in modernising the civilian economy lagged behind Western nations, leaving the USSR technologically backward.
The imbalance made reform essential but also risky, as reducing military expenditure was seen as weakening security in the Cold War context.
The war caused tens of thousands of Soviet casualties and drained billions of roubles.
It also undermined morale at home as families questioned the sacrifice in a conflict that appeared unwinnable. Internationally, it damaged the USSR’s image, portraying it as an aggressor occupying a poor nation.
For Gorbachev, continuing the war was politically and economically unsustainable, and withdrawal became a necessary step in reshaping foreign policy.
Abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine meant the Soviet Union would no longer intervene militarily to maintain communist regimes in its satellite states.
This policy shift, sometimes called the “Sinatra Doctrine,” emboldened opposition groups in Eastern Europe. It removed the fear of Soviet tanks crushing uprisings, as had happened in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968).
Consequently, reform movements rapidly gained momentum, leading to revolutions in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, and beyond.
The Baltic Way was a peaceful protest on 23 August 1989, when about two million people formed a 600-kilometre human chain linking Tallinn, Riga, and Vilnius.
It commemorated the 50th anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, which had led to Baltic incorporation into the USSR.
It signalled widespread desire for independence and challenged Soviet legitimacy.
It gained global media attention, strengthening the moral authority of the independence movements.
The protest demonstrated how coordinated, non-violent action could undermine Soviet control without direct confrontation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two reforms introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev that aimed to address the weaknesses of the Soviet Union in the 1980s.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each correct reform identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include: Glasnost, Perestroika, reduction of censorship, introduction of limited market reforms, greater openness to foreign investment, or democratisation of political life.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the arms race placed pressure on the Soviet Union during the 1980s.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic answers showing limited knowledge, e.g. "The USA spent more on weapons so the USSR could not keep up."
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with relevant detail, e.g. reference to Reagan’s military build-up or the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), with recognition of Soviet economic weaknesses.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation covering multiple factors with clear links between the arms race and Soviet strain, e.g. the US technological advantage, the financial burden on the Soviet economy (25% GDP on defence), and how this diverted resources away from consumer goods and social welfare, fuelling discontent.
