OCR Specification focus:
‘Political, social and economic conditions in South Africa in 1989; process towards and elections of 1994; the problem of violence.’
South Africa’s transition from apartheid to democracy between 1989 and 1994 reshaped the nation’s politics, economy, and society while testing its capacity to overcome entrenched racial divisions.
Political, Social and Economic Conditions in 1989
By 1989, South Africa faced mounting internal and external pressures. Politically, apartheid—the system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination—was under sustained attack.
Political Landscape
National Party (NP) remained in power but was deeply divided between reformists and hard-line conservatives.
State of Emergency measures, imposed in the mid-1980s to quell unrest, continued to restrict civil liberties.
The African National Congress (ANC), though banned, maintained influence through underground networks and armed struggle led by Umkhonto we Sizwe (the ANC’s armed wing).
International isolation grew as the United Nations and key trading partners applied sanctions.
Social Conditions
Black South Africans endured pass laws, racial segregation, and substandard education.
Township unrest persisted, with violent clashes between protesters and security forces.
Deep poverty and unequal access to housing and healthcare reinforced racial tensions.
Economic Pressures
International sanctions and disinvestment caused rising unemployment and inflation.
The gold price slump reduced government revenue, weakening the apartheid state’s ability to maintain control.
Domestic business leaders increasingly urged reforms to attract foreign investment and stabilise the economy.
The Process Towards Elections, 1989–1994
Key Political Developments
1989 Presidential Transition: P.W. Botha resigned after a stroke; F.W. de Klerk succeeded him and signalled a willingness to reform.
2 February 1990 Speech: De Klerk announced the unbanning of the ANC, South African Communist Party (SACP), and other organisations, and the imminent release of political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela.
Release of Nelson Mandela (1990): Mandela’s freedom after 27 years became a global symbol of change.
Negotiation Stages
Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA I): Began December 1991, bringing together NP, ANC, and other parties to draft a democratic framework.
CODESA II: Reopened May 1992 after setbacks, seeking agreement on an interim government and new constitution.
Record of Understanding (September 1992): Breakthrough accord between De Klerk and Mandela to resume full negotiations.
Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (1993): Finalised arrangements for South Africa’s first non-racial elections.
Key Elements of the Process
Interim Constitution (1993) guaranteed universal suffrage and entrenched a Bill of Rights.
Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) was established to ensure a free and fair vote.
An Interim Government of National Unity was agreed to bridge the transition.
The Problem of Violence
Despite progress, political violence threatened to derail negotiations.
Sources of Violence
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi engaged in bloody clashes with ANC supporters, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal and migrant worker hostels around Johannesburg.
Third Force allegations emerged, with covert elements of the security forces accused of secretly supporting conflict to weaken the ANC.
Right-wing White Militias, such as the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), opposed negotiations and staged attacks to preserve white supremacy.
Impact on the Process
Massacres like the Boipatong massacre (1992) and the Bisho killings (1992) temporarily stalled talks.
The Bhisho Massacre Memorial commemorates those killed when the Ciskei Defence Force opened fire on protesters on 7 September 1992. As a post-event memorial, it focuses on remembrance rather than the incident’s detail. Source
Leaders including Mandela and De Klerk worked to calm tensions, emphasising reconciliation.
The 1994 Elections
Preparations
A date was set for 27 April 1994, later celebrated as Freedom Day.
The IEC registered millions of first-time voters despite logistical challenges across urban and rural areas.
Security operations aimed to contain extremist threats.
Election Results
The ANC won with 62.6% of the vote, forming a Government of National Unity with the NP and IFP.
A provincial map showing the leading party in the 1994 South African general election. Dark green indicates ANC majorities, light green ANC pluralities, orange NP majorities, and light red the IFP. This clean, labelled diagram complements the text by revealing the regional geography of the vote. Source
Key Figures
Nelson Mandela: Central negotiator for the ANC, symbol of resistance and reconciliation.
F.W. de Klerk: Initiated reforms, legalised opposition parties, and shared the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize with Mandela.
Mangosuthu Buthelezi: Leader of the IFP, whose eventual participation in the election was critical to avoiding civil war.
Significance
The period from 1989 to 1994 demonstrated how sustained negotiation, pragmatic leadership, and international pressure dismantled apartheid. Yet the persistent problem of violence underscored the fragility of South Africa’s democratic transition and the challenges of reconciling a divided society.
FAQ
Major South African corporations and banks pressed the government to end apartheid as international sanctions and disinvestment hurt profits.
Business leaders initiated dialogues with ANC figures, notably secret meetings with Nelson Mandela while he was still imprisoned.
Their pressure highlighted the economic unsustainability of apartheid and encouraged F.W. de Klerk’s government to accelerate negotiations.
The IFP, led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, feared loss of regional autonomy in KwaZulu-Natal and objected to aspects of the interim constitution.
Concerns included the centralisation of power and inadequate guarantees for Zulu traditional authority.
Intense mediation by international envoys and last-minute concessions on provincial powers persuaded the IFP to participate just days before the vote.
The Independent Electoral Commission coordinated with the South African Police and newly integrated defence forces to safeguard polling stations.
Measures included:
Deployment of thousands of security personnel to high-risk areas.
Rapid-response teams to address outbreaks of violence.
Coordination with international monitors to report incidents quickly.
These efforts limited disruption despite attacks from extremist groups.
State-run broadcasters began offering more balanced coverage under De Klerk, while independent newspapers expanded reporting on negotiations and political violence.
Radio stations in multiple languages provided voter education, explaining how to register and cast ballots.
This increased public engagement and reduced misinformation, helping first-time voters navigate the new democratic process.
International observers, including delegations from the United Nations, the Commonwealth, and the European Union, monitored the election process to ensure fairness and transparency.
They inspected polling stations, verified voter registration procedures, and oversaw ballot counting.
Their presence reassured the public and international community that the results were legitimate despite sporadic violence and logistical challenges.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (3 marks)
Identify three key political developments between 1989 and 1990 that signalled the South African government’s intention to end apartheid.
Mark scheme
1 mark for each correct development, up to a maximum of 3 marks.
Accept any three of the following:
Resignation of P.W. Botha and succession of F.W. de Klerk (1989).
De Klerk’s 2 February 1990 speech announcing the unbanning of the ANC and other organisations.
Announcement of the release of Nelson Mandela.
Lifting of restrictions on anti-apartheid political activity.
Commitment to negotiate a new constitutional framework.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how political violence threatened the process towards the 1994 elections in South Africa.
Mark scheme
Award up to 6 marks:
1–2 marks: Basic identification of violent incidents without explanation (e.g., simply naming the Boipatong massacre or clashes between the ANC and Inkatha Freedom Party).
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of how violence disrupted negotiations, such as describing the role of the “Third Force,” the impact of township unrest, or the influence of right-wing militias.
5–6 marks: Detailed analysis linking specific events (e.g., Bisho killings 1992, Boipatong massacre 1992) to temporary breakdowns in talks, and demonstrating understanding of how leaders like Mandela and De Klerk worked to contain the violence and resume negotiations.
Credit well-organised answers that show both the scale of the violence and its effect on the negotiation timetable.
