OCR Specification focus:
‘Scandinavian land and climate; Scandinavian society (including slaves, the free, women, children, elites and rules of conduct); royal power (kingship); Scandinavian livelihood (including trade, developments in shipbuilding, seafaring, money, farming).’
The Viking Age, c.790–1066, was marked by unique social structures, cultural practices, and economic innovation shaped by geography, climate, and evolving systems of power.
Scandinavian Land and Climate
The environment of Scandinavia had a profound influence on Viking society and economy. The region was defined by rugged mountains, dense forests, and an extensive coastline dotted with fjords. These features shaped settlement patterns and modes of subsistence.
Short growing seasons limited agriculture, requiring innovation in farming techniques and reliance on livestock.
Harsh winters fostered resilience and adaptability, encouraging storage of food and resources.
Extensive coastlines encouraged maritime activity, fostering shipbuilding and seafaring traditions.
The climate demanded that Viking communities combine farming with hunting, fishing, and trade to survive.
Scandinavian Society
Viking society was complex, stratified, and defined by rules of conduct that maintained order within communities.
Social Hierarchy
Elites (Jarls): Wealthy nobles who held land, controlled warriors, and commanded loyalty.
Freemen (Karls): Farmers, traders, and craftsmen who formed the backbone of society.
Thralls (Slaves): The lowest class, often captured in raids or born into servitude, who provided labour for elites and freemen.
Thrall: A Viking slave, lacking legal rights, often captured during warfare or obtained through trade.
Despite social divisions, Viking society emphasised honour, loyalty, and reputation, which governed conduct in everyday life and conflict resolution.
Roles of Women and Children
Women managed households, controlled property, and could initiate divorce. Their roles were vital in maintaining family estates during male absence at sea.
Children were expected to contribute early to household labour and learned trades or warfare depending on status.
Rules of conduct were reinforced through oral tradition, laws, and assemblies known as Things, which provided a forum for disputes and decision-making.
Lögberg (Law Rock) at Þingvellir, Iceland, where the Alþing assembly met. Laws were proclaimed and disputes settled here, embodying Viking public legal culture. Source
Royal Power (Kingship)
Viking kingship was less absolute than later medieval monarchies. Kings derived authority from charisma, wealth, and military leadership rather than inherited right alone.
Warrior kingship: Power was often tied to the ability to lead successful raids and distribute plunder.
Consensus rule: Kings relied on the support of chieftains and assemblies; rejection could lead to deposition.
Sacred authority: Kings were sometimes linked to the gods, strengthening legitimacy through religious ritual.
Kingship was therefore fluid, contested, and intimately connected with wealth generated through trade and warfare.
Scandinavian Livelihood
Trade
The Vikings established extensive trade networks, reaching from the North Atlantic to the Middle East.
Exports: furs, amber, iron, and slaves.
Imports: silver, silk, wine, and exotic goods.
Markets and towns such as Hedeby and Birka became vital trade centres.
Shipbuilding and Seafaring
Innovations in ship design were critical to Viking expansion.
Reconstruction of the Skuldelev 1 knarr “Ottar” at the Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde. Its broad hull and shallow draft illustrate cargo capacity, essential for Viking trade. Source
Longships: Shallow-drafted, fast, and manoeuvrable vessels ideal for raiding and exploration.
Knarrs: Broader cargo ships used for trade and colonisation.
Seafaring expertise allowed voyages across the North Sea, into rivers, and as far as Byzantium and North America.
Money
Initially, barter dominated transactions, but silver coins and weighed bullion became increasingly important.
Silver dirhams from the Islamic world were highly prized.
The use of money signalled growing economic sophistication.
Display of the Cuerdale Hoard at the British Museum, including hacksilver, ingots, and coins. The collection demonstrates bullion-based commerce alongside coined money in Viking society. Source
Farming
Farming remained the foundation of livelihood.
Crops: barley, rye, oats, and wheat in fertile areas.
Livestock: cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and horses.
Tools such as iron ploughs improved efficiency.
Hunting and Craft-working
Hunting supplemented diets with meat and provided furs for trade. Craft-working was also vital:
Skilled artisans produced jewellery, weapons, and textiles.
Woodworking was essential for shipbuilding and housing.
Culture in Daily Life
Viking cultural practices reinforced identity and cohesion.
Feasting and gift-giving strengthened loyalty between leaders and followers.
Storytelling and sagas transmitted values and historical memory.
Burial rituals varied by wealth, with elites receiving ship burials or grave goods reflecting status.
Thing: An assembly of free men in Viking society where laws were made, disputes settled, and kings or leaders accepted or rejected.
These cultural institutions linked society, economy, and royal power, ensuring that Viking communities adapted and thrived within their challenging environment.
FAQ
In fertile lowland areas, particularly Denmark, farming was more intensive with cereal crops such as barley and rye.
In contrast, Norway’s mountainous terrain and harsher climate meant reliance on livestock—especially sheep and goats—for wool and dairy. Fishing also played a much larger role in coastal communities, reflecting how geography shaped livelihood diversity.
Feasts were more than celebrations—they reinforced hierarchy and alliances.
Elites displayed wealth through generosity, distributing food and gifts.
Freemen gained status by attending and affirming loyalty.
Thralls provided the labour, symbolising dependence and inequality.
Feasting bound communities together and showcased the ruler’s power to provide, maintaining the social order.
Women often controlled farms when men were away raiding or trading, managing labour and resources.
They could inherit property, trade in markets, and in some cases, act as guardians of family wealth. Their ability to divorce and reclaim dowries also safeguarded financial independence, giving women a degree of economic agency uncommon in other medieval societies.
Viking honour culture valued reputation, but unchecked feuding threatened community stability.
Rules of conduct emphasised:
Compensation payments (wergild) instead of revenge killings.
Public dispute resolution at Things, where arbitration prevented escalation.
Social expectations that insults be redressed formally, not violently.
These practices balanced personal honour with communal order.
Silver served both as currency and as a status symbol.
Weighed silver, known as hacksilver, allowed flexible trade before coinage became common.
Hoards across Scandinavia and Britain show links to long-distance trade, especially with the Islamic world.
Silver ornaments doubled as adornments and portable wealth, reinforcing both economic and social status.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two groups within Viking society, other than kings.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct group identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include: Jarls (elites/nobility), Karls (freemen), Thralls (slaves), women, children.
Do not award marks for repetition or vague terms such as “people” or “farmers” without reference to their social status.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the Scandinavian land and climate influenced Viking livelihood.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 5 marks for explanation showing clear knowledge and understanding.
1–2 marks: Simple statements, e.g. “The land was harsh so they had to farm and fish.”
3–4 marks: Developed explanation, e.g. “The short growing season limited farming, so they relied on livestock and hunting to supplement food supplies.”
5 marks: Fully developed explanation making more than one link, e.g. “The short growing seasons restricted farming, encouraging innovation in crop and livestock management, while the extensive coastline promoted fishing and shipbuilding as essential parts of livelihood.”
