OCR Specification focus:
‘French revival under Joan of Arc; desertion of Burgundy; French recovery, the loss of Normandy and Gascony and the Battle of Castillon (1450–1453); the impact of the war on English domestic politics.’
Between 1429 and 1453, the course of the Hundred Years’ War dramatically shifted. France, inspired by new leadership and political realignments, reversed English gains, leading to ultimate defeat.
Joan of Arc and the French Revival
The Siege of Orléans (1429)
In 1429, Joan of Arc, a young peasant woman claiming divine guidance, became the symbolic and spiritual leader of the French cause. Her arrival invigorated morale at a time when France was fragmented and weakened.
Joan convinced Charles VII to allow her to aid the French forces.
Her leadership at the Siege of Orléans broke the English encirclement, a turning point in the war.
A reconstructed plan of Orléans during the siege of 1428–1429, showing the Loire bridge, Les Tourelles, French defences and English bastilles. It highlights the choke-points that Joan of Arc helped to prise open. Broader city details are included beyond the syllabus but support contextual understanding. Source
Joan of Arc: A French peasant claiming divine inspiration, who galvanised French resistance in 1429 and became a central figure in the later stages of the Hundred Years’ War.
Coronation at Reims
Following Orléans, Joan escorted Charles VII to Reims Cathedral, where he was crowned in July 1429. This bolstered his legitimacy against the English-backed claim of Henry VI to the French throne. The symbolic coronation undermined English authority in France.
The Role of Burgundy
Anglo-Burgundian Alliance
Until the 1430s, the Duchy of Burgundy had supported the English cause. This alliance was crucial: Burgundy controlled large swathes of France, including Paris.
Burgundy’s military support gave England strategic dominance.
The Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, remained pragmatic, pursuing his dynasty’s interests.
The Desertion of Burgundy (1435)
The Treaty of Arras (1435) ended hostilities between France and Burgundy.
This university-sourced map shows English and French holdings (c.1422) alongside the Burgundian territories reconciled to Charles VII by the Treaty of Arras (1435). It directly illustrates Burgundy’s desertion of England and the shift in power. The broader temporal frame (1415–1453) exceeds the syllabus focus but reinforces context. Source
This desertion of Burgundy left England isolated in France.
The treaty undermined English control of Paris, which was soon lost in 1436.
Burgundy’s realignment was a decisive blow, marking the shift from English ascendancy to French resurgence.
French Recovery
Military and Tactical Reforms
Charles VII implemented major reforms to consolidate French power:
Creation of a standing army, reducing reliance on feudal levies.
Improved artillery under Jean Bureau, enhancing siege warfare.
Use of compagnies d’ordonnance (permanent cavalry units), professionalising the French forces.
Standing Army: A permanent, professional military force maintained in peacetime, ensuring consistent readiness for war.
These innovations gave France a significant advantage, particularly in sieges where English longbowmen were less effective.
The Decline of English Holdings
By the 1440s, England’s control in France was weakening:
Normandy: Initially the cornerstone of English power, Normandy was reconquered by French forces in 1449–1450.
Gascony: Long held as an English possession, Gascony fell after decisive French campaigns by 1453.
Paris: Lost in 1436, never to be regained.
This systematic French recovery dismantled the territorial empire built under Henry V.
The Battle of Castillon (1453)
Prelude to the Battle
In 1453, the English attempted to regain Gascony, sending forces under John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. French preparations, particularly their artillery, were decisive.
The Battle
At Castillon in July 1453, French artillery devastated the English attack.
A map of the Battle of Castillon (1453), showing French entrenched artillery positions and the English assault led by John Talbot. It illustrates how artillery dictated the battle’s outcome and led to the fall of Gascony. The layout simplifies the complex engagement while emphasising syllabus-relevant features. Source
Talbot was killed, symbolising the collapse of English hopes in France.
The battle is often regarded as the final engagement of the Hundred Years’ War.
Battle of Castillon (1453): The final major battle of the Hundred Years’ War, resulting in French victory and the death of John Talbot, marking the loss of Gascony.
Following Castillon, England retained only Calais, signalling the near-total collapse of its French empire.
Impact on English Domestic Politics
Loss of Prestige
The defeats in France had a profound impact on English political stability:
The loss of Normandy (1450) and Gascony (1453) shattered national pride.
Henry VI was blamed for military failures, as he lacked the martial leadership of his father, Henry V.
The defeats exposed weaknesses in governance and finance, deepening discontent.
Social and Political Consequences
Returning soldiers created instability, swelling the ranks of disaffected men.
The defeats emboldened critics of royal favourites such as the Duke of Suffolk, whose dominance ended violently in 1450.
The Cade’s Rebellion (1450) was partly fuelled by anger over military humiliation and misgovernment.
Prelude to Civil War
The collapse of English fortunes in France directly undermined the monarchy:
The king’s authority was weakened beyond repair.
The Wars of the Roses were precipitated by factional disputes, with military defeat serving as a backdrop to dynastic rivalry.
FAQ
Joan of Arc was captured in 1430 by Burgundian forces and handed over to the English. Her trial and execution in 1431 aimed to discredit her and weaken French morale.
Instead, her martyrdom strengthened French unity. Charles VII continued the revival she had inspired, and Joan’s symbolic role as a divinely guided leader remained powerful in galvanising resistance.
French artillery, organised by Jean Bureau, was crucial throughout the 1440s and 1450s. It was decisive in sieges, where heavy guns dismantled English fortifications.
Key impacts:
Helped retake Normandy by breaking strongholds like Rouen.
Allowed the French to dominate field battles when used defensively.
Marked a shift from reliance on longbowmen to gunpowder warfare.
Gascony had been held by the English crown since the 12th century, forming part of the legacy of the Angevin Empire.
Its importance lay in:
Economic value: trade in wine and goods, which supported English revenue.
Symbolic weight: its long possession represented enduring English influence in France.
Military utility: it gave England a base for campaigns deeper into France.
Normandy had been the backbone of English power in France. Its loss shocked English opinion and undermined confidence in Henry VI’s rule.
Consequences included:
The scapegoating of ministers like the Duke of Suffolk, who was murdered in 1450.
Fuel for popular anger, culminating in Cade’s Rebellion.
A sense that England’s military reputation built under Henry V had collapsed within a generation.
Burgundy’s reconciliation with Charles VII in 1435 gave the French monarchy a decisive advantage.
In the long term:
It restored Paris to French royal control by 1436.
It ended the most dangerous internal division in France.
It allowed Charles VII to centralise authority and push forward military reforms without fear of Burgundian opposition.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did the Treaty of Arras end hostilities between France and Burgundy, and why was this significant for the course of the Hundred Years’ War?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct year: 1435.
1 mark for significance: Burgundy deserted England and recognised Charles VII, leaving England isolated in France.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the Battle of Castillon (1453) was a decisive defeat for the English in the Hundred Years’ War.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each well-explained reason (2 × 3 = 6 total).
Possible points:
French use of entrenched artillery: devastating to English assault (1 mark for identification, up to 2 additional marks for explanation of its effectiveness).
Death of John Talbot: symbolised the collapse of English leadership and morale (1 mark for identification, up to 2 additional marks for explanation of its consequences).
The loss of Gascony: ended England’s centuries-old possession and marked the final collapse of English territorial claims (1 mark for identification, up to 2 additional marks for explanation).
(Maximum of 6 marks; credit any other relevant, accurate explanation with the same marking principle.)
