OCR Specification focus:
‘Causes of rebellion and civil war, usurpation, the dismissal of Roger of Salisbury.’
The outbreak of civil war in 1139 was rooted in dynastic uncertainty, contested succession, and baronial ambition. This section examines rebellion causes, usurpation, and political dismissal.
Background to the Succession Crisis
The seeds of the Civil War of 1139–1154, often called The Anarchy, lay in the contested succession after the death of Henry I in 1135. Henry’s only legitimate son, William Adelin, had died in the White Ship disaster of 1120, leaving his daughter Matilda (the Empress Matilda) as his designated heir.
Medieval illustration of the White Ship wreck off Barfleur (25 November 1120), from a British Library manuscript. The death of William Adelin precipitated a disputed succession and later rebellion. The scene includes additional figures from the wreck; this extra narrative detail is faithful to the source but exceeds the syllabus’ minimum requirement. Source
Dynastic fragility: Female succession was unprecedented in Norman England, raising doubts about stability under Matilda.
Rival claimant: Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, seized the throne with speed and support from influential allies.
Church approval: Stephen’s usurpation gained legitimacy through the support of his brother Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, who wielded significant ecclesiastical power.
Usurpation: The unlawful or forceful seizure of a throne or position of power, often without hereditary or legal justification.
The combination of gendered prejudice, opportunism, and divided loyalties created a fragile political balance that quickly fractured into rebellion.
Causes of Rebellion
Rebellion stemmed from overlapping political, social, and personal grievances. Each factor contributed to the erosion of Stephen’s authority and the outbreak of civil conflict.
Weak Royal Authority
Stephen’s rapid seizure of the throne left his position insecure. He lacked the formidable presence of Henry I and depended heavily on baronial support.
Erosion of central control: Stephen’s concessions to nobles reduced the crown’s authority.
Failure to enforce justice: Disorder spread as local lords capitalised on weak governance.
Baronial Ambitions
The nobility exploited uncertainty for personal gain. Some barons sought to expand their autonomy, while others manoeuvred to strengthen their local dominance.
Private fortifications: Many barons constructed unlicensed castles (adulterine castles), undermining royal control.
Factionalism: Nobles shifted allegiances between Stephen and Matilda depending on opportunities.
Support for Matilda
Many nobles and clerics remained loyal to the oaths sworn to Henry I and his chosen heir.
Robert of Gloucester: Matilda’s half-brother and a powerful magnate, played a crucial role in raising rebellion.
Legitimacy arguments: Supporters argued Stephen had broken his oath and seized power unlawfully.
The Church
Although initially supportive, the Church’s loyalty wavered. Conflicts arose over Stephen’s treatment of bishops and interference in ecclesiastical rights.
Henry of Blois: Initially instrumental in Stephen’s rise, later became critical of his policies.
Exploitation of weakness: Church leaders leveraged the crisis to expand their authority and secure privileges.
Usurpation of the Crown
Stephen’s usurpation represented a central cause of the conflict. His seizure of the throne, though swift, lacked secure foundations.
Speed of action: Stephen crossed the Channel immediately after Henry’s death and secured London’s support.
Coronation: His crowning in Westminster was rushed, designed to pre-empt Matilda’s claim.
Manipulation of loyalty: By exploiting widespread fears of female rule, Stephen persuaded nobles to abandon their sworn oaths.
The usurpation destabilised political legitimacy, introducing long-term questions of succession and undermining faith in sworn oaths as the cornerstone of Norman political order.
The Dismissal of Roger of Salisbury
A key turning point was Stephen’s clash with Roger of Salisbury, Henry I’s former justiciar and one of the kingdom’s most experienced administrators.
Justiciar: The chief royal minister in medieval England, responsible for overseeing government and justice in the king’s absence.
Roger and his family had dominated administrative offices under Henry I, creating a powerful bureaucratic dynasty. Their dismissal in 1139 weakened royal governance and provoked unrest.
Tomb in Salisbury Cathedral, traditionally identified as that of Roger of Salisbury (d. 1139), Henry I’s leading administrator and de facto justiciar. His arrest and removal in 1139 fractured the royal administrative cadre and intensified baronial mistrust. The photograph shows the effigial slab and surrounding setting for contextual understanding. Source
Reasons for Dismissal
Fear of disloyalty: Stephen suspected Roger of leaning towards Matilda.
Baronial jealousy: Other nobles resented the Salisbury family’s concentration of power.
Paranoia and rivalry: Stephen’s insecurity led him to strike pre-emptively at a family too powerful to ignore.
Consequences
Collapse of administration: Removing Roger dismantled the skilled machinery of government built under Henry I.
Loss of continuity: With experienced administrators sidelined, royal justice and finance faltered.
Alienation of barons: The dismissal sent shockwaves through the nobility, fuelling suspicions of Stephen’s unreliability.
Escalation into Civil War
The convergence of rebellion, usurpation, and administrative disruption made open conflict inevitable by 1139.
Political map of England and south Wales in 1140, indicating areas aligned with King Stephen and Empress Matilda. The distribution of loyalties illustrates how weak royal authority and shifting baronial allegiances translated into regional control. Labels are limited and clear, matching the level of detail needed for OCR study. Source
Matilda’s landing in England: With Robert of Gloucester’s backing, she began her campaign.
Baronial defections: Many lords shifted to her cause, emboldened by Stephen’s mistakes.
Breakdown of law and order: Localised violence and rival coinage reflected the collapse of royal authority.
By undermining both his legitimacy and his government, Stephen created conditions ripe for prolonged civil war. His usurpation, combined with the dismissal of key officials and the ambitions of discontented nobles, transformed dynastic crisis into nationwide conflict.
FAQ
Many nobles hesitated because female succession was unprecedented and raised doubts about effective rule in a militarised society.
Additionally, Matilda’s personality and perceived arrogance alienated some supporters, while her marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou created unease. The Angevins were seen as rivals to Norman interests, which made barons cautious about transferring loyalty.
Initially, Stephen gained Church support, especially from his brother Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, who legitimised his coronation.
However, over time tensions grew due to Stephen’s interference in Church rights, including the arrest of bishops in 1139. This undermined ecclesiastical trust and encouraged clerics to question his legitimacy, weakening his authority during the civil war.
Adulterine castles, built without royal permission, became widespread during Stephen’s reign.
They provided barons with fortified bases to resist royal authority.
They symbolised the breakdown of central control.
Their proliferation allowed rebellion to spread more easily, as Stephen lacked the resources to dismantle them effectively.
Robert of Gloucester, Henry I’s illegitimate son, commanded significant estates and military strength.
His loyalty gave Matilda both legitimacy and a power base in the west of England. Without Robert’s backing, Matilda’s ability to contest Stephen’s throne would have been severely limited, as few other magnates were willing to openly challenge the king.
By securing the royal treasury at Winchester, Stephen gained control of the crown’s financial resources.
This allowed him to:
Reward supporters and secure loyalty.
Fund military campaigns and garrisons.
Assert symbolic control, since possession of the treasury was seen as a hallmark of kingship.
Although effective in the short term, this act also deepened resentment among those still loyal to Matilda’s claim.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the significance of the White Ship disaster (1120) for the outbreak of the civil war in 1139?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying that it caused the death of William Adelin, Henry I’s only legitimate son.
1 mark for linking this directly to the disputed succession and contested claims between Stephen and Matilda.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the dismissal of Roger of Salisbury in 1139 contributed to the outbreak and continuation of the civil war.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for stating that Roger of Salisbury was Henry I’s chief justiciar and a key royal administrator.
1 mark for explaining that his dismissal weakened the experienced machinery of central government.
1 mark for noting that this collapse reduced Stephen’s ability to enforce justice and maintain control.
1 mark for recognising that barons were alienated and mistrusted Stephen further as a result.
1 mark for linking this directly to how rebellion escalated and made civil conflict more likely.
