OCR Specification focus:
‘Lollardy, the beliefs of Lollards, reasons for and the extent of support, nature, geography and social composition of the support, duration of the movement.’
The rise of John Wycliffe and the Lollards marked one of the earliest significant challenges to medieval Church authority, shaping religious dissent and reformist movements across late medieval England.
John Wycliffe: Background and Influence
John Wycliffe (c.1328–1384), an Oxford scholar and theologian, was a central figure in pre-Reformation thought. His intellectual background in scholastic philosophy and theology, combined with the political turbulence of 14th-century England, gave his writings considerable influence. He criticised the Church’s wealth, the authority of the papacy, and the moral failures of the clergy, calling for a return to a simpler, Bible-based Christianity.
John Wycliffe depicted in an oil portrait at Balliol College, Oxford. As a university scholar, he shaped the ideas and language that informed the Lollard movement. This visual anchors the movement’s academic origins. Source
Lollardy: A religious reform movement in late medieval England, inspired by John Wycliffe’s teachings, advocating for vernacular scripture, criticism of clerical wealth, and moral reform.
Core Beliefs of the Lollards
The beliefs of the Lollards centred on a rejection of ecclesiastical corruption and a desire for lay access to scripture. Their theology included:
Primacy of Scripture: The Bible was the sole authority for Christian teaching, to be available in the vernacular.
Critique of the Sacraments: While baptism and the Eucharist were acknowledged, transubstantiation was rejected, and confession to a priest was considered unnecessary.
Opposition to Papal Authority: The Pope was seen as fallible, and many Lollards considered him corrupt.
Condemnation of Clerical Wealth and Power: Clergy should live in poverty and humility rather than amass riches.
Moral Reform: Emphasis on personal piety, preaching, and ethical conduct rather than ritual and ceremony.
Transubstantiation: The Catholic doctrine that, during the Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ, though retaining their outward appearance.
Support for the Lollards
The nature of Lollard support was complex and varied over time, with differing degrees of commitment and visibility depending on political circumstances.
Social Composition
Gentry Support: Some members of the English gentry supported Wycliffe and his ideas, attracted to criticisms of ecclesiastical wealth and papal interference in politics.
Urban Support: Artisans, merchants, and educated townspeople, particularly in London and the Midlands, formed an important base.
Clerical Sympathisers: A minority of lower clergy were sympathetic, especially those disillusioned with corruption in higher ranks.
Limited Peasant Following: While Wycliffe’s emphasis on equality appealed broadly, peasant support was uneven and often exaggerated in hostile sources.
Gender and Age
Women: Unusually for the period, women played a visible role in Lollardy, often as Bible readers, preachers, or hosts of meetings.
Youth: Younger generations of scholars and urban artisans showed interest, as Lollardy provided a radical critique of established authority.
Geographical Spread
The geography of Lollardy was closely tied to centres of learning and commerce:
Oxford: Wycliffe’s base and the original intellectual hub of the movement.
London and the Home Counties: Strong support among merchants and artisans.
Midlands: Pockets of enduring strength, particularly in Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire.
Yorkshire and the North: Some scattered evidence of support, though less widespread.
Reasons for Support
Lollardy’s endurance was linked to multiple factors:
Religious Dissatisfaction: Growing criticism of Church corruption and clerical abuses created fertile ground.
Political Tensions: The Hundred Years’ War, papal taxation, and the Great Schism weakened papal prestige.
Economic Grievances: Resentment of Church wealth resonated with both gentry and townspeople.
Intellectual Climate: The scholastic tradition at Oxford encouraged questioning and debate.
Lay Piety and Literacy: A rising desire among the laity for direct engagement with scripture supported calls for vernacular texts.
Extent and Duration of Support
Late 14th Century Growth: After Wycliffe’s death in 1384, his ideas spread rapidly, bolstered by translations of the Bible into English.
1381 and the Peasants’ Revolt: Although Lollardy was not directly responsible, authorities associated it with rebellion, intensifying repression.
Early 15th Century: Under Richard II and Henry IV, Lollardy faced persecution. The 1401 statute De heretico comburendo legalised the burning of heretics.
Oldcastle’s Rebellion (1414): The failed uprising by Sir John Oldcastle, a Lollard sympathiser, marked a turning point, linking Lollardy permanently with sedition.
Survival to 1420 and Beyond: Despite repression, Lollard communities persisted underground, particularly in the Midlands and London, ensuring the ideas endured until the Reformation.
Engraving of the execution of Sir John Oldcastle, a prominent Lollard. It illustrates the coercive measures faced by the movement in the early fifteenth century. Note: the image derives from later printed martyrologies and thus reflects early modern presentation of the event, but the subject matter aligns with the syllabus focus on repression. Source
De heretico comburendo: A statute enacted in 1401 that authorised the burning of convicted heretics in England, aimed primarily at suppressing Lollard activity.
Long-Term Significance
By c.1420, Lollardy had been driven underground, but its significance lay in its endurance and the way it provided a template for later reform movements. Its emphasis on vernacular scripture, critique of clerical power, and appeal to lay piety foreshadowed many themes of the Protestant Reformation a century later.
FAQ
Oxford provided Wycliffe with both a platform and a network of scholars. His lectures and writings circulated among students who later carried these ideas beyond the university.
The intellectual environment encouraged debate, and the presence of sympathetic academics meant his criticisms of the Church were preserved, discussed, and gradually disseminated.
Royal attitudes were inconsistent. Under Richard II, Wycliffe faced some protection due to political divisions, but by the reign of Henry IV, repression became much harsher.
The 1401 statute De heretico comburendo was passed under Henry IV, embedding the monarchy’s role in persecution. Henry V reinforced this stance, linking Lollardy to treason through Oldcastle’s rebellion.
Although literacy rates were low, handwritten copies of the Wycliffite Bible and pamphlets allowed Lollard ideas to circulate in small groups.
Literate members would read aloud to gatherings.
Marginal notes and glosses provided accessible explanations.
Women often hosted these readings, ensuring family-level transmission.
Earlier critiques, like those of monastic reformers, generally sought renewal within the Church’s framework.
Lollardy went further by rejecting doctrines like transubstantiation and questioning papal authority, thereby challenging the very foundations of Catholic orthodoxy.
London’s dense population, thriving mercantile class, and relatively high literacy created fertile ground for dissent.
Merchants and artisans connected through guild networks spread ideas efficiently. The city’s political importance also meant that Lollard activity in London attracted more attention from authorities, increasing both its visibility and vulnerability.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two core beliefs of the Lollards.
Mark scheme
1 mark for each accurate belief identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
The primacy of Scripture (Bible as the sole authority).
Rejection of transubstantiation.
Opposition to papal authority.
Condemnation of clerical wealth and power.
Emphasis on personal piety and ethical conduct over ritual.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the social composition of Lollard support was important to the movement’s development up to c.1420.
Mark scheme
Award up to 6 marks.
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple or generalised statements with little explanation (e.g., “Lollards had gentry support” or “women were involved”).
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with relevant detail (e.g., “The gentry gave the movement some protection” or “Urban artisans spread ideas in towns”).
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation showing clear understanding of significance (e.g., “The gentry, such as Sir John Oldcastle, provided protection and political weight, while artisans and merchants in towns like London helped spread Lollard ideas more widely. The involvement of women and younger scholars gave the movement a broader social base, which helped sustain it despite persecution”).
Credit should be given for reference to:
Gentry support giving political weight and protection.
Urban artisans/merchants helping with dissemination in towns.
Women’s visible participation.
Youth and scholars contributing to intellectual continuity.
The combined effect of this varied social composition on survival and spread.
