OCR Specification focus:
‘Relations with Spain shifted from peace to war as strategic, religious and dynastic tensions mounted.’
England’s relations with Spain from the late fifteenth to late sixteenth centuries moved dramatically from cooperation and dynastic alliance to bitter hostility and outright war.
Early Peaceful Relations under Henry VII
Henry VII inherited a fragile throne in 1485 and recognised the importance of Spanish support for dynastic security and European recognition.
Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489)
This established a marriage alliance between Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon, securing Tudor legitimacy.It also strengthened England’s trade access to Iberia and reinforced both kingdoms’ opposition to France.
Henry’s foreign policy priorities of dynastic security and peace made Spanish friendship vital.
Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella was becoming a European superpower through territorial expansion and dynastic unity. Aligning with them positioned England securely in continental politics.
Shifts under Henry VIII
Marriage to Catherine of Aragon
Henry VIII’s 1509 marriage to Catherine reinforced dynastic alliance. England’s fortunes appeared linked with Spain’s growing power.
Early Cooperation against France
Henry joined Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in campaigns against France, fulfilling his chivalric and dynastic ambitions.
However, Ferdinand often acted in his own interest, and English campaigns achieved limited success, leading to frustration.
Decline of Anglo-Spanish Alignment
Ferdinand’s death (1516) and Charles I’s accession as King of Spain altered balances of power.
Spain’s focus shifted towards its growing Habsburg connections in Europe, leaving England somewhat marginalised.
Despite marriage ties, English influence waned as Spain emerged as the preeminent European monarchy.
Mid-Tudor Complications
The Divorce Crisis
Henry VIII’s request for annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon provoked direct confrontation with Spain.
Annulment: A legal declaration by the Church that a marriage was invalid from the start.
Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, who defended her interests.
England’s break with Rome (1534) deepened the rift.
Spain became protector of Catholic orthodoxy, opposing Henry’s religious reformation.
Edward VI and Somerset’s Regency
Spain under Charles V remained formally at peace with England, but religious and dynastic mistrust persisted.
England leaned towards alliances with Protestant powers such as France and German states.
Trade links with the Low Countries, under Spanish control, continued but became vulnerable to disruption.
Mary I and the Spanish Marriage
Marriage Alliance with Philip II (1554)
Mary sought to restore Catholicism and security through marriage to Philip II of Spain.
Anglo-Spanish War with France (1557–1559)
England entered war against France on Spain’s side after French aggression.
This led directly to the disastrous loss of Calais (1558), England’s last continental possession.
Although allied with Spain, England suffered strategic humiliation, fuelling domestic discontent.
Mary’s death in 1558 ended the Anglo-Spanish marriage alliance, leaving Elizabeth I to redefine relations.
Elizabeth I and the Drift to War
Initial Pragmatism
Elizabeth initially sought pragmatic peace with Spain, recognising the importance of trade with the Netherlands.
Map of the Habsburg Netherlands around 1555, showing the Seventeen Provinces that became the arena of revolt against Spanish rule. Province names appear in Spanish, which is an extra detail beyond the syllabus but aids orientation. The map clarifies why turmoil here mattered to English trade and security. Source
Both monarchs had mutual reasons for restraint: Spain faced costly continental wars, and Elizabeth required stability early in her reign.
Religious differences, however, made long-term alignment difficult.
Growing Tensions
Several key issues escalated hostility:
Religious conflict: Spain upheld Catholicism while Elizabeth established Protestant settlement.
The Dutch Revolt (from 1566): England sympathised with Protestant rebels; Spain demanded loyalty from the Netherlands.
Trade disputes: English privateering and Spanish embargoes disrupted commerce.
Dynastic plots: Support for Mary, Queen of Scots, by Spanish and Catholic factions undermined Elizabeth’s legitimacy.
Privateering: State-authorised piracy against enemy ships, often targeting trade and treasure fleets.
Escalation towards War
Excommunication of Elizabeth (1570) by Pope Pius V, supported by Spain, legitimised rebellion against her.
Elizabeth’s cautious interventions in the Netherlands directly challenged Spanish authority.
Philip II increasingly viewed England as a Protestant threat undermining his empire and religion.
By the 1580s, tensions had moved beyond disputes to outright hostility.
The Road to Open War
Drake’s raids on Spanish treasure fleets and colonial ports highlighted maritime competition.
The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (1587) convinced Philip that Elizabeth had to be removed.
In 1585, the Treaty of Nonsuch formalised English military support for the Dutch rebels, effectively declaring war on Spain.
Facsimile of a 1732 copy of the Treaty of Nonsuch, concluded 10 August 1585 between Elizabeth I and the States General. The document set out troop commitments and financial terms that bound England to the Dutch cause. The facsimile includes full clause text, an extra level of detail beyond the syllabus but useful for context. Source
This progression from tentative peace under Henry VII to war by the late Elizabethan period reflects how strategic, religious and dynastic pressures mounted over the century, transforming allies into bitter enemies.
FAQ
The Netherlands were England’s main trading partner for wool and cloth, providing a vital market that underpinned the economy. Disruption of this trade through embargoes or war risked financial instability.
The ports of Antwerp and Bruges were also strategic gateways into wider European commerce. This economic interdependence explains why Elizabeth hesitated before openly supporting the Dutch rebels, as it threatened to sever critical trade links.
Philip inherited not only Spain but also the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and the Spanish Americas, making him Europe’s most powerful monarch.
England’s support for Protestant causes directly challenged his attempts to maintain Catholic dominance across his empire. His ambitions created constant tension, as English actions in the Netherlands or on the seas were seen as direct threats to his broader imperial strategy.
Anti-Spanish propaganda circulated through pamphlets, plays, and sermons, often portraying Spain as tyrannical and cruel.
Stories of Spanish atrocities in the Americas (the “Black Legend”) influenced popular opinion.
Preachers and politicians framed Philip II as the archetypal Catholic despot.
This reinforced domestic support for Elizabeth’s eventual military confrontation with Spain, making peace politically harder to maintain.
Unlike earlier tensions, the treaty marked the first time Elizabeth committed English troops to fight Spanish forces directly.
It provided 7,000 English soldiers to aid the Dutch rebels.
It placed England in open defiance of Spain’s authority in the Netherlands.
This removed any remaining ambiguity: while raids and embargoes had strained relations, Nonsuch confirmed that England was now Spain’s active enemy.
At first, marriages cemented alliance: Henry VII’s treaty married Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, while Henry VIII reinforced ties by marrying Catherine himself.
Mary I’s marriage to Philip II briefly revived dynastic unity, but its unpopularity fuelled resentment at perceived Spanish dominance.
Thus, while dynastic marriages were intended to ensure stability, they ultimately deepened divisions when personal and political interests diverged.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key issues that caused tension between Elizabeth I and Spain before the outbreak of war in 1585.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified issue, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:Religious conflict between Protestant England and Catholic Spain.
England’s support for the Dutch Revolt.
Disruption to trade through Spanish embargoes or English privateering.
Spanish support for Mary, Queen of Scots.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how dynastic and religious factors contributed to the deterioration of Anglo-Spanish relations between 1527 and 1585.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Limited explanation with generalised or vague statements. May simply state that religion and marriage caused problems.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of both dynastic and religious factors, but detail or balance may be uneven. For example, explains the divorce of Catherine of Aragon but gives only a limited reference to the Dutch Revolt.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation of both dynastic and religious factors, showing understanding of their significance over time. For example, explains Henry VIII’s annulment crisis and break with Rome (dynastic/religious), Mary I’s marriage to Philip II and its unpopularity (dynastic), Elizabeth’s Protestant settlement, and Spain’s role as Catholic defender leading to hostility (religious). Answers should demonstrate linkage between these factors and the eventual drift to war.
