OCR Specification focus:
‘The divorce crisis, Mary Tudor’s marriage to Philip (1554) and the Dutch Revolt reshaped relations.’
The mid-Tudor period brought upheaval in Anglo-European diplomacy. Henry VIII’s divorce crisis, Mary I’s controversial marriage, and Elizabeth I’s response to the Dutch Revolt reshaped England’s relationships with Spain and the wider continent.
The Divorce Crisis and Anglo-Spanish Relations
Context of Henry VIII’s Marriage
Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the Spanish princess, had originally cemented the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489) alliance between England and Spain. By the 1520s, Henry sought an annulment due to his lack of a surviving male heir and his infatuation with Anne Boleyn.
The King’s Great Matter
The request for annulment created what contemporaries called the King’s Great Matter. It strained relations with Spain because:
Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain.
Charles’s political dominance in Europe, particularly after his sack of Rome in 1527, prevented Pope Clement VII from granting the annulment.
England’s traditional alliance with Spain deteriorated, and Henry sought new allies in France and among German Protestant princes.
Consequences for Foreign Policy
England became diplomatically isolated, breaking the long-standing Anglo-Spanish partnership.
The creation of the Church of England (1534) under the Act of Supremacy redefined religious and political alignments in Europe.
Spain, as a staunchly Catholic power, increasingly became hostile towards England’s religious and dynastic independence.
Mary Tudor and the Spanish Marriage
Motives for the Marriage
When Mary I came to the throne in 1553, she aimed to restore Catholicism and strengthen ties with Habsburg Spain. Her marriage to Philip II of Spain in 1554 was driven by:
Religious conviction: reinforcing Catholic unity against Protestantism.
Dynastic security: seeking to produce a Catholic heir with Habsburg blood.
Reactions in England
The marriage treaty attempted to safeguard English interests, limiting Philip’s powers in England.
Widespread suspicion grew among the English political nation and common people, fearing subordination to Spanish interests.
The Wyatt’s Rebellion (1554) demonstrated opposition, motivated by both anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish sentiment.
Political and Diplomatic Outcomes
England became embroiled in Habsburg conflicts. Mary’s decision to support Philip led to war with France in 1557.
This alliance culminated in the disastrous loss of Calais (1558), England’s last continental possession, severely damaging national prestige.
Mary’s failure to produce an heir left the succession to Protestant Elizabeth, undermining the intended dynastic link to Spain.
The Dutch Revolt and Elizabethan Policy
Origins of the Revolt
The Dutch Revolt (1568 onwards) was a Protestant uprising against Philip II’s harsh Catholic rule in the Low Countries. Its significance for England included:
The Netherlands’ role as England’s primary trading partner, especially for wool and cloth exports.
Geographical proximity: Spanish control of the Channel coast posed a strategic threat.
Simplified map of the Low Countries (c.1560), highlighting the Spanish Netherlands across the Channel from England. This illustrates why England viewed Flanders, Brabant, and Zeeland as vital to its security. The inclusion of Liège and Cambrésis provides extra geographic context beyond the syllabus focus. Source
Dutch Revolt: The armed and political resistance of the Low Countries against Spanish rule, sparked by religious persecution and heavy taxation.
Elizabeth I’s Balancing Act
Initially, Elizabeth avoided direct confrontation with Spain. Her strategies included:
Cautious diplomacy: refusing to openly endorse the rebels to prevent war.
Privateering support: tacitly allowing English merchants and adventurers to supply aid to rebels and raid Spanish shipping.
Marriage diplomacy: considering, but never pursuing, marriage to figures such as the Duke of Anjou to balance Spain.
Escalation of Conflict
By the 1570s and 1580s:
The execution of Protestant leaders in the Netherlands and brutal repression intensified English hostility.
Engraving by Jan Luyken (1679) depicting the Council of Troubles in the Spanish Netherlands. Presided over by the Duke of Alba, this tribunal symbolised Habsburg repression. It provides visual evidence of the context of terror that deepened English hostility and encouraged support for the rebels. Source
Elizabeth provided financial and military assistance to the rebels after the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585), committing English troops under the Earl of Leicester.
Spain interpreted this as open hostility, worsening relations and contributing to the launching of the Spanish Armada (1588).
Strategic and Religious Implications
Support for the Dutch became not only a matter of trade security but also a religious imperative, defending Protestantism against Catholic Spain.
England’s alignment with the Dutch rebels marked a decisive break from its earlier attempts at reconciliation with Spain.
The revolt, by linking English national security to the fate of the Netherlands, ensured long-term enmity with Spain.
Shifts Across the Tudor Period
Diplomatic Transformation
Under Henry VIII, the divorce ended the Anglo-Spanish alliance and aligned England temporarily with Protestant reformers.
Under Mary I, the Spanish marriage tied England to Habsburg conflicts, damaging English sovereignty and prestige.
Under Elizabeth I, support for the Dutch rebels crystallised the shift from diplomatic caution to overt hostility, reshaping England’s role in European politics.
Long-Term Consequences
The divorce crisis and Mary’s marriage highlighted the dynastic dimension of foreign policy, showing how personal unions could destabilise national strategy.
The Dutch Revolt demonstrated the religious and economic stakes of Tudor diplomacy, binding England’s fate to Protestant struggles in Europe.
By 1603, Anglo-Spanish relations had shifted from potential partnership to entrenched rivalry, shaped by these decisive episodes.
FAQ
The Wyatt’s Rebellion was fuelled by fears that Mary’s marriage to Philip would reduce England to a subordinate role within Habsburg politics.
Many rebels also opposed the return of Catholicism, but the marriage itself acted as the catalyst. The prospect of a foreign king consort sparked concerns over England’s independence and the possible loss of English interests to Spanish priorities.
The treaty stated that:
Philip would hold the title of King of England but had limited authority.
England would not be dragged automatically into Spanish wars.
No foreigners could hold English office.
Despite these safeguards, widespread suspicion remained, as many believed Philip’s influence would overshadow English policy.
Antwerp was the centre of the cloth trade, vital for England’s economy. Disruptions caused by rebellion and Spanish repression threatened English merchants.
Elizabeth’s cautious support for the Dutch rebels was partly motivated by the need to secure stable trade routes. Economic concerns intertwined with religious and strategic motives, making Antwerp central to her decision-making.
The revolt risked undermining Habsburg control across Europe. The Netherlands were wealthy provinces, providing significant taxation and trade revenues.
Religious dissent also set a dangerous precedent: if Protestantism succeeded in the Netherlands, it could inspire challenges in other Catholic territories. Maintaining strict control was therefore vital to Philip’s vision of a unified Catholic monarchy.
The treaty marked England’s formal commitment to aiding the Dutch rebels. Elizabeth agreed to provide troops under the Earl of Leicester and financial support.
This was a turning point: Spain saw it as open warfare, escalating tensions that culminated in the Spanish Armada. The treaty transformed the Dutch Revolt from a regional rebellion into a European conflict with England at its heart.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Mary I marry Philip II of Spain, and what was one key political consequence of this marriage for England?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1554.
1 mark for any valid political consequence, e.g.:
England tied to Habsburg conflicts
Growing domestic suspicion and unrest, e.g. Wyatt’s Rebellion
Loss of independence fears
Influence on the succession question.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the Dutch Revolt was significant for Elizabeth I’s foreign policy.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for identifying factors (e.g. economic, strategic, religious).
Up to 4 marks for explanation and development of significance, such as:
Economic: the Netherlands was England’s key trading partner, particularly for cloth exports.
Strategic: Spanish control of the Low Countries posed a threat across the Channel.
Religious: support for the Protestant rebels aligned with Elizabeth’s broader Protestant policies.
Diplomatic: Elizabeth’s intervention after the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585) marked a shift to open conflict with Spain.
Answers must go beyond simple identification to explain why these factors were significant to gain higher marks.
