OCR Specification focus:
‘Long- and short-term causes; Drake’s raid on Cadiz (1587), death of Santa Cruz and Medina Sidonia’s limitations.’
Between 1587 and 1588 Anglo-Spanish tensions escalated dramatically. Religious conflict, dynastic rivalries, and economic pressures combined with naval expeditions and leadership shifts to shape the Armada’s causes.
Long-Term Causes of the Armada
Religious Divisions
The Reformation was a fundamental source of enmity. Spain, under Philip II, was a staunchly Catholic monarchy, while England had consolidated its Protestant identity under Elizabeth I.
The 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis excommunicated Elizabeth, encouraging Catholic subjects to rebel and sanctioning Philip’s intervention.
Religion therefore became both an ideological justification and a political necessity for Spanish aggression.
Excommunication: A formal exclusion from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church, used here as a tool of papal politics.
The religious divide also meant Spain’s attack could be framed as a holy war, further strengthening Philip’s legitimacy at home and abroad.
Dynastic and Political Rivalries
Philip II had once been king consort of England through his marriage to Mary I. Her death in 1558 ended Spanish influence, but Philip still believed himself the rightful guardian of English Catholics.
Elizabeth’s support for rebels in the Netherlands Revolt challenged Spanish authority directly.
Rivalries between emerging Protestant states and Catholic hegemony framed England and Spain as opposing powers in the European balance.
Economic and Colonial Competition
English privateers, such as Francis Drake, consistently attacked Spanish treasure fleets returning from the Americas.
These attacks undermined Spanish finances, heavily dependent on colonial silver.
England’s commercial ambitions increasingly conflicted with Spain’s monopoly on New World trade.
Short-Term Causes and Escalation
Drake’s Raid on Cadiz (1587)
In April 1587, Francis Drake launched a pre-emptive strike on the Spanish port of Cadiz. Known as the “singeing of the King of Spain’s beard,” this raid destroyed a significant portion of naval supplies and delayed the Armada’s launch.
Panoramic, labelled view of Cádiz by Braun & Hogenberg, showing the peninsula, harbour basins and seaward approaches that made the port both strategic and exposed. The geography helps explain Drake’s choice of target in 1587. This image includes period decorative elements not required by the syllabus. Source
Drake captured or destroyed around 30 ships and large stores of timber and barrel staves essential for casks.
The raid demonstrated the vulnerability of Spain’s preparations and boosted English confidence.
However, it also hardened Philip’s resolve to avenge the humiliation and to restore Spain’s prestige.
Drake reported burning ships and destroying vittles, tackle and munition, forcing Philip II to delay the Armada.
Drake’s 27 April 1587 despatch to Sir Francis Walsingham recounting the attack in Cádiz harbour. As a primary source, it corroborates English intentions to pre-empt Spanish invasion plans and degrade matériel. The manuscript contains additional administrative detail beyond syllabus requirements. Source
The Role of Portugal
Following Spain’s annexation of Portugal in 1580, Philip gained access to the Portuguese navy and empire, strengthening his resources for an assault. Portugal’s ports became staging grounds for the Armada, reinforcing England’s strategic danger.
The Death of Santa Cruz
The Armada’s original commander, Marquis of Santa Cruz, died in February 1588 before the fleet could sail.
Rafael Tegeo’s 1828 oil portrait of Álvaro de Bazán, the veteran admiral designated to command the Armada. His death removed Spain’s most experienced leader and contributed to subsequent command limitations. The painting is posthumous and includes artistic detail beyond the syllabus focus. Source
Santa Cruz was an experienced admiral with proven skill in commanding large fleets.
His death deprived Spain of a seasoned strategist at a critical moment.
Leadership passed instead to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a man of noble birth but little naval experience.
Admiral: The highest rank of naval officer, responsible for directing fleets and coordinating sea campaigns.
The death of Santa Cruz shifted Spanish planning from an experienced professional to a politically reliable but militarily untested figure.
Medina Sidonia and Spanish Limitations
Medina Sidonia’s Weaknesses
The new commander, Medina Sidonia, lacked both enthusiasm and practical expertise in maritime warfare.
He openly admitted to Philip his seasickness and lack of naval knowledge.
Despite his personal loyalty, his appointment revealed Spain’s reliance on aristocratic status rather than competence in choosing leaders.
Logistical and Material Constraints
Spain’s Armada faced severe practical problems:
Shipbuilding Delays: Drake’s Cadiz raid had destroyed vital supplies and forced rushed replacements.
Crew Shortages: Many sailors were inexperienced or conscripted, reducing efficiency.
Provisions: Food and water stored in inferior barrels rotted quickly, undermining morale and health.
Communication: The Armada was designed to coordinate with Parma’s army in the Netherlands, but poor communication across the Channel posed serious risks.
Interconnected Motives Behind the Armada
Strategic Aims
Philip II’s objectives were multiple and interconnected:
To overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism in England.
To end English support for Dutch rebels in the Netherlands.
To suppress privateering raids on Spanish treasure fleets.
To reassert Spain’s position as Europe’s leading Catholic power.
Honour and Prestige
The Cadiz raid and years of English defiance made the Armada an issue of monarchical honour. Philip could not tolerate continued challenges without appearing weak.
Restoring prestige was therefore as much a motive as achieving strategic security.
Divine Mission
The Armada was also presented as a crusade against Protestant heresy. This religious framing helped unify Spanish subjects around the campaign despite its risks and costs.
The Shaping of Anglo-Spanish Conflict 1587–1588
The combination of long-term structural causes — religion, dynasty, and economics — with short-term triggers — Drake’s Cadiz raid and Santa Cruz’s death — created a volatile context. The appointment of Medina Sidonia revealed Spanish limitations, while Philip’s unwavering determination underscored how ideology, honour, and politics converged to make the Armada inevitable.
FAQ
Cadiz was chosen because it was one of Spain’s most important naval supply bases and a key staging point for the Armada. Large quantities of timber, barrel staves, victuals and equipment were concentrated there awaiting shipment.
Its open harbour made it vulnerable to a swift attack, allowing Drake to strike quickly and withdraw before a coordinated Spanish defence could be organised.
The success of the raid enhanced England’s reputation as a rising naval power. European observers noted that a smaller, less wealthy kingdom had inflicted serious damage on the world’s leading Catholic empire.
This not only boosted England’s prestige but also encouraged alliances with Protestant powers, who saw Elizabeth’s navy as a credible check on Spain’s dominance.
Philip II prioritised loyalty and aristocratic standing over military competence. After Santa Cruz’s death, he sought a commander he could trust politically.
Medina Sidonia’s noble background and unwavering devotion made him a safe political choice, but his lack of naval expertise left the Armada disadvantaged.
The raid destroyed crucial stores of barrel staves used for preserving food and water.
This forced Spain to rely on lower-quality replacements.
The result was rapid spoilage of provisions during the Armada campaign.
Logistical strain increased disease and malnutrition among sailors, weakening Spain’s effectiveness even before battle.
Santa Cruz had extensive experience in Mediterranean warfare, including Lepanto (1571), and was respected for his skill in commanding large fleets.
His death meant the loss of an admiral capable of managing complex coordination between sea and land forces. The transition to Medina Sidonia symbolised Spain’s reliance on political loyalty rather than professional naval leadership, leaving the Armada vulnerable at the highest level of command.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two short-term events between 1587 and early 1588 that contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish Armada.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct short-term event identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:Drake’s raid on Cadiz in April 1587.
The destruction of Spanish ships and supplies at Cadiz.
The death of the Marquis of Santa Cruz in February 1588.
The appointment of the inexperienced Duke of Medina Sidonia.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how Drake’s raid on Cadiz in 1587 affected Spanish preparations for the Armada.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying a basic point about disruption caused by the raid.
1 additional mark for describing how supplies were destroyed or delayed.
1 additional mark for linking the raid to the delay of the Armada’s sailing.
1 additional mark for noting the psychological or political impact (e.g., humiliation of Spain, boosted English morale, hardened Philip’s resolve).
1 additional mark for showing understanding of the strategic significance (e.g., how Cadiz’s loss of ships and supplies forced Spain to rebuild, revealing vulnerabilities in Spanish naval logistics).
