OCR Specification focus:
‘The Government of England c.1445; the growth of opposition; the issue of taxation.’
England in the years 1445–1450 faced a mounting crisis in governance. Mismanagement, financial strain, foreign failures, and noble rivalries fuelled deepening opposition to Henry VI’s rule.
The Government of England c.1445
At the midpoint of the fifteenth century, the structure of government relied heavily on the king’s personal leadership. Authority was channelled through the Royal Household, the King’s Council, and Parliament, with the monarchy expected to balance patronage, justice, and defence. However, the personal character of Henry VI deeply influenced governance.
Portrait of Henry VI (c.1540), depicting the pious, introspective king whose limited decisiveness affected mid-fifteenth-century governance. His clasped hands and subdued attire reinforce the image of a devout monarch rather than an active war leader. The portrait post-dates his reign but reflects Tudor-era remembrance of his character. Source
Henry VI was known for his piety and gentleness, but he lacked the energy and decisiveness needed for kingship.
His reliance on favourites and inability to check factional disputes meant that confidence in the Crown steadily eroded.
Royal Household: The immediate servants, officials, and courtiers surrounding the king who played a central role in political influence and access.
The king’s weakness was exacerbated by the financial burdens created by ongoing wars with France. The Crown’s revenue, drawn largely from customs duties, feudal levies, and parliamentary taxation, was insufficient to meet the mounting costs of warfare and court expenses.
The Growth of Opposition
Dissatisfaction with Leadership
By the mid-1440s, opposition to Henry VI’s government had begun to crystalise. Critics pointed to:
Military setbacks in France, particularly the loss of Normandy.
Map of the 1450 Normandy campaign after the Battle of Formigny, illustrating French and Breton advances against remaining English garrisons such as Caen and Cherbourg. Labels are in French, but the geography and sequences of sieges are clear and directly illustrate the collapse of English rule in Normandy. Extra labels show specific siege routes not named in the syllabus; these simply clarify the extent of losses referenced in the notes. Source
Financial mismanagement, where increased taxation failed to produce tangible successes.
The growing influence of royal favourites, especially William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, accused of corruption and self-interest.
Parliament became an important forum for criticism. Members of the Commons frequently protested against:
The misuse of taxation.
The lack of accountability among royal officials.
The perceived betrayal of English interests in France.
The Role of Suffolk
Suffolk emerged as the dominant advisor to Henry VI in this period. His negotiation of the Treaty of Tours (1444), which included the marriage of Henry VI to Margaret of Anjou and the surrender of Maine, outraged many nobles and commoners alike.
Suffolk was seen as sacrificing English prestige for little gain.
His patronage networks alienated powerful nobles excluded from influence, sowing factional divisions.
Factionalism among the Nobility
Noble rivalries sharpened in this environment. Many magnates felt marginalised by Suffolk’s control of patronage and sought to assert their authority independently in the regions. This increased lawlessness, private feuding, and maintenance of large retinues.
Maintenance: The practice of nobles retaining followers or armed men to advance personal or factional interests, often undermining royal justice.
By 1450, opposition to Suffolk had grown so strong that he was impeached by Parliament.
Walter Paget’s historical illustration shows the arrest of the Duke of Suffolk (1450), a moment emblematic of mounting opposition to the king’s favourite. The scene conveys official force confronting a richly dressed magnate, underscoring accusations of misgovernment and corruption cited in the notes. While a later artistic reconstruction (c.1909), it accurately represents the episode central to the growth of opposition. Source
Though Henry VI attempted to shield him, Suffolk was exiled, only to be captured and killed at sea.
The Issue of Taxation
Parliamentary Taxation and Discontent
The financial strain of the French wars was a persistent source of tension. Henry VI’s government repeatedly turned to Parliament for taxation, justifying it with the need to defend English possessions abroad.
Taxation was deeply resented by both nobles and commons, especially as defeats in France continued.
Many believed funds were misused by corrupt courtiers rather than directed to national defence.
Taxation (in this context): Extraordinary financial levies granted by Parliament to the Crown, usually for military purposes, often falling disproportionately on the commons.
When Parliament granted subsidies, the Crown’s failure to demonstrate victories or even stability in France intensified anger. Resentment became widespread, as taxation was linked directly with government failure.
Economic Strain and Popular Discontent
Beyond parliamentary politics, taxation hit ordinary people hard.
Increased direct levies strained local communities already suffering from economic pressures.
Popular belief spread that the king’s ministers enriched themselves while ordinary taxpayers bore the burdens.
This resentment contributed to outbreaks of unrest, including the infamous Cade’s Rebellion of 1450, which was fuelled in part by taxation grievances.
The Crisis of Authority
Declining Royal Authority
The period 1445–1450 revealed the fragility of the Lancastrian monarchy. The Crown’s failures to maintain justice, finance wars effectively, and manage noble rivalries led to:
A decline in the perception of royal authority.
Growing reliance on factional politics.
An environment ripe for rebellion and dynastic instability.
Henry VI’s inability to address the underlying issues of governance — from taxation to noble conflict — set the stage for the broader breakdown of order that culminated in the Wars of the Roses.
The Wider Political Climate
The government crisis cannot be separated from the international context. The loss of English territories in France not only damaged prestige but also:
Weakened England’s economy through reduced customs revenues.
Undermined confidence in the Crown’s military leadership.
Fuelled the idea that the king’s advisors were betraying the kingdom’s interests.
In this environment, noble opposition found fertile ground, while common grievances against taxation united different social groups in shared hostility to Henry VI’s government.
FAQ
Henry VI was deeply religious, favouring devotional pursuits over governance. This meant he neglected decision-making, leaving ministers unchecked.
His preference for peace, even when unpopular, created suspicion that his advisors manipulated him. This lack of personal engagement weakened respect for the monarchy.
The treaty agreed to Henry VI’s marriage to Margaret of Anjou and the surrender of Maine.
The marriage alliance was seen as one-sided, offering little tangible benefit to England.
The secret clause giving up Maine became symbolic of government betrayal, feeding anger at Suffolk and his allies.
Tax resistance took various forms:
Complaints in local assemblies and petitions to Parliament.
Instances of tax evasion and slow collection in counties hardest hit by levies.
Growing circulation of rumours that taxes enriched corrupt ministers rather than supporting war.
These expressions highlight mounting frustration before open rebellion erupted in 1450.
Parliament increasingly became a platform for grievances. MPs criticised the Crown’s use of subsidies and demanded inquiries into corruption.
Petitions often emphasised mismanagement of war finances, while the Commons pushed for the impeachment of figures like Suffolk. Though Parliament lacked the power to enforce reforms consistently, its debates reflected and amplified wider discontent.
Although Suffolk’s removal in 1450 removed a key scapegoat, the deeper issues remained:
Henry VI still lacked authority to govern effectively.
Financial strain and taxation pressures persisted.
Noble rivalries and factional violence continued unchecked.
As a result, hostility quickly transferred from Suffolk to the Crown itself, intensifying the broader government crisis.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two reasons why opposition to Henry VI’s government increased between 1445 and 1450.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified.
Acceptable answers include:
• Military defeats in France (e.g. loss of Normandy).
• Resentment over heavy taxation.
• Influence and corruption of royal favourites such as the Duke of Suffolk.
• Perception of financial mismanagement.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, became a focus of opposition to Henry VI’s government in the years 1445–1450.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 6 marks based on the following:
• 1–2 marks: Limited explanation, simple statements (e.g. “He was unpopular” without development).
• 3–4 marks: Some explanation with relevant detail (e.g. “He negotiated the Treaty of Tours and surrendered Maine, which many saw as a betrayal”).
• 5–6 marks: Developed explanation with multiple factors, showing understanding of context (e.g. “Suffolk became a focus of opposition because he dominated royal patronage, excluded other nobles, and was blamed for the disastrous Treaty of Tours which ceded Maine. His control of government finances and perceived corruption reinforced criticism, and by 1450 Parliament impeached him”).
