OCR Specification focus:
‘England’s position in Europe in 1485; Henry VII’s aims’
Henry VII’s foreign policy must be understood within the fragile context of his early reign. His diplomatic strategies sought security, recognition, and dynastic stability.
England’s Position in Europe in 1485
Post-Wars of the Roses Instability
Henry VII ascended the throne after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth (1485). His rule was fragile:
He was a usurper with a weak hereditary claim to the throne.
The Wars of the Roses had left England politically unstable and vulnerable to foreign intervention.
Yorkist claimants, notably Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, received continental support, highlighting England’s precarious position.
Relative Power of England
England was comparatively weak compared to the great powers of Europe:
France was the strongest continental power, with financial and military superiority.
Spain had unified under Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, becoming a formidable political and military force.
Burgundy, a wealthy duchy and trading power, maintained ties to Yorkist exiles, posing a threat.
Scotland remained a longstanding rival, supporting Yorkist pretenders at times.
The Holy Roman Empire was significant but fragmented; its ruler Maximilian I was influential in Burgundy and wider Europe.
England lacked resources to dominate but could use diplomacy to secure its position.
A political map of Europe c.1500 showing the main states relevant to Henry VII’s aims, including England, France, Spain, Scotland and the Holy Roman Empire. Use it to visualise England’s constrained position amid larger or wealthier neighbours. Extra detail: the map also shows regions not central to the syllabus focus (e.g., the Ottoman realm). Source
Henry VII’s Diplomatic Aims
Central Objectives
Henry’s aims in foreign policy were shaped by his insecure domestic position and limited resources. His priorities were:
Security of the dynasty: Prevent foreign support for Yorkist challengers.
Recognition of legitimacy: Gain acceptance from major European powers.
Dynastic alliances: Use marriage to strengthen the Tudor line.
Economic interests: Expand trade and secure favourable agreements.
Avoid costly wars: Focus resources on consolidating power at home.
Dynastic Alliance: A political and diplomatic union created through marriage between ruling families to secure peace, legitimacy, and influence.
Diplomatic strategies were designed not for expansion but for preservation of Tudor rule.
Foreign Threats and Pressures
France
France’s support for Yorkist claimants, such as Warbeck, posed a danger.
Henry sought to avoid direct confrontation but needed to contain French ambitions, particularly in Brittany, where he initially intervened to maintain English influence.
Burgundy
The Duchess of Burgundy, Margaret of York, was sister to Edward IV and Richard III.
She actively supported Yorkist pretenders, undermining Henry’s security.
Burgundy’s importance as a trading hub meant Henry had to balance security with commerce.
Map of the Low Countries in 1477, with the Seventeen Provinces and major towns labelled (e.g., Bruges, Antwerp). It clarifies why Burgundian territories were both an economic lifeline and a political risk for Henry VII. Extra detail: the legend notes later Habsburg additions; these aren’t required by the syllabus but help situate the provinces. Source
Spain
Spain was emerging as a powerful monarchy.
A marriage alliance between Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon offered international recognition and security against France.
Scotland
Scotland’s northern border posed a constant threat of invasion.
The Auld Alliance (between Scotland and France) increased the risk of coordinated action against England.
Methods of Diplomacy
Strategic Marriages
Henry used marriage negotiations to strengthen legitimacy:
Arthur and Catherine of Aragon: Alliance with Spain (Treaty of Medina del Campo, 1489).
Katherine (Catherine) of Aragon, the Spanish princess whose marriage to Prince Arthur anchored the Anglo-Spanish alliance envisaged by Medina del Campo. The work is an eighteenth-century version of a portrait type dating to c.1530, so it post-dates Henry VII’s reign but depicts the key figure behind the policy. Extra detail: later dating of this version is beyond the syllabus scope; use it strictly to illustrate the alliance. Source
Proposed marriages between his daughters and European rulers further expanded Tudor recognition.
Trade Agreements
Henry pursued favourable commercial treaties to stabilise the economy:
Securing agreements with Burgundy (e.g. Magnus Intercursus in 1496).
These agreements boosted English cloth exports and strengthened ties with the Low Countries.
Balancing Powers
Henry acted cautiously to prevent England’s isolation:
Sought alliances to counterbalance France.
Worked with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire when necessary.
Avoided over-commitment, preserving limited resources.
European Context and Henry’s Pragmatism
A Diplomatic Tightrope
England in 1485 was too weak to act aggressively. Henry adopted a defensive and pragmatic policy:
Intervened in Brittany to resist French expansion but swiftly negotiated the Treaty of Étaples (1492), gaining recognition and a pension from France.
Used marriage diplomacy to gain legitimacy while avoiding overextension.
Realpolitik: A pragmatic approach to politics prioritising practical outcomes and security over ideology or principle.
Henry’s diplomacy reflected Realpolitik, prioritising stability over conquest.
Limited Resources
Unlike his successors, Henry avoided costly wars. Instead, he relied on:
Subsidised treaties (such as pensions from France).
Economic diplomacy to finance his regime.
Marriage alliances to elevate Tudor prestige.
Evaluation of Aims and Achievements
Henry’s aims were modest but realistic, focusing on survival rather than expansion.
By gaining treaties and alliances with major powers, he secured recognition of the Tudor dynasty.
His diplomacy reduced Yorkist threats, though not entirely eliminating them.
England remained a secondary power, but Henry ensured stability and recognition, laying foundations for his successors.
Key Takeaways
England’s weakness in 1485 explains Henry’s cautious diplomacy.
His aims centred on dynastic security, legitimacy, and economic stability.
His strategies of marriage alliances, trade agreements, and careful balancing allowed him to consolidate Tudor rule in a dangerous European environment.
FAQ
Brittany was vital because it offered England a friendly power across the Channel and had sheltered Henry during his exile.
If France absorbed Brittany, England risked being surrounded by French-controlled territory, threatening its security.
Henry’s intervention in the Breton Crisis was driven by both personal loyalty and the strategic need to prevent France from dominating the Channel coast.
Henry’s treasury could not sustain prolonged wars, which shaped a cautious, pragmatic approach.
Instead of military campaigns, he:
Pursued peace treaties that included financial pensions, such as with France in 1492.
Used marriage alliances to gain recognition without costly conflict.
Emphasised trade treaties to increase long-term revenue.
Diplomacy rather than war was the backbone of his strategy due to financial constraints.
Henry’s domestic legitimacy was fragile because his claim was weak and challenged by Yorkist pretenders.
Foreign recognition acted as a deterrent: if major powers accepted him, they were less likely to back claimants such as Warbeck.
This international acceptance also bolstered Henry’s standing at home, making rebellion less appealing to potential supporters of rival dynasties.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, had influence over Burgundy, where Yorkist exiles found refuge.
Henry had to manage relations carefully:
He sought agreements to limit Yorkist support.
At times, he aligned with the Empire against France, balancing threats.
Though not England’s primary focus, the Empire’s involvement in Burgundian affairs directly affected Henry’s security.
Earlier kings, especially Edward IV, had pursued more aggressive campaigns in France to expand influence.
Henry VII reversed this by:
Avoiding expansionist wars.
Prioritising defensive treaties and dynastic marriages.
Accepting financial pensions in exchange for peace.
His approach marked a shift from traditional medieval warrior kingship to a more modern, pragmatic diplomacy centred on survival and consolidation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In what year did Henry VII sign the Treaty of Medina del Campo with Spain?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct identification of the treaty’s year.
Correct answer: 1489.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why marriage alliances were important to Henry VII’s diplomatic aims.
Mark Scheme:
1–2 marks: General reference to marriage being used for peace or alliances without detail.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how marriage alliances strengthened Henry’s legitimacy or improved relations, e.g., marriage of Arthur to Catherine of Aragon securing Spanish recognition.
5–6 marks: Developed explanation with multiple points, such as recognition from Spain, countering France, and strengthening the dynasty. Clear linkage to Henry’s overall diplomatic aims of security and legitimacy.
