OCR Specification focus:
‘The rise and fall of Thomas Cromwell; extent of Henry VIII’s role in government in the 1540s; faction in the 1540s; foreign policy in the 1540s, war with France and Scotland and its impact.’
Introduction
Henry VIII’s final decade was defined by political upheaval, factional struggles, and costly foreign wars, all deeply intertwined with the dramatic rise and fall of Thomas Cromwell.
The Rise and Fall of Thomas Cromwell
Cromwell’s Rise
Thomas Cromwell, who had engineered the Henrician Reformation and secured Henry’s supremacy over the Church, consolidated power in the late 1530s. As Lord Privy Seal and Vicegerent in Spirituals, he directed both government administration and ecclesiastical matters. His efficiency in law, finance, and diplomacy earned Henry’s trust, but his assertive style provoked resentment.
Hans Holbein the Younger’s portrait presents Thomas Cromwell as a powerful royal councillor, captured during the period of his greatest influence. The sober setting and legal papers reinforce his administrative authority. This visual context supports discussion of his rapid rise and dramatic fall in 1540. Source
The Cleves Marriage Crisis
Cromwell’s decline was rooted in the failed marriage alliance with Anne of Cleves in 1540. Intended to strengthen England’s Protestant alliances against France and the Holy Roman Empire, the union was personally distasteful to Henry and diplomatically redundant once European tensions shifted. Cromwell was blamed for the humiliation.
Execution and Aftermath
In July 1540, Cromwell was executed for treason and heresy, accused of overstepping his authority and advancing radical religious reform. His fall marked a turning point, strengthening Henry’s personal dominance. Despite Cromwell’s administrative legacy, his demise reinforced the dangers of factional intrigue.
Faction: A group within court or government, often competing for influence and advancing their political or religious agenda.
The Extent of Henry VIII’s Role in Government in the 1540s
Increasing Personal Rule
After Cromwell’s execution, Henry VIII reasserted his personal control over government. He balanced competing groups at court to prevent any minister from gaining too much power, exploiting rivalries to preserve his authority.
Key Aspects of Governance
Privy Council: Reformed into a more professional body with a smaller membership, strengthening administrative efficiency.
Factional Balance: Henry manipulated conservative and reformist factions, maintaining ultimate decision-making power.
Military and Foreign Policy: Henry’s leadership in war, especially against France and Scotland, showcased his assertive royal authority.
Faction in the 1540s
Court Politics
Factional struggles dominated court life after Cromwell’s fall, with religious and political divisions sharpening:
Conservative Faction: Led by figures like Stephen Gardiner and the Duke of Norfolk, they defended traditional religion.
Reformist Faction: Prominent courtiers such as Edward Seymour (Earl of Hertford) favoured Protestant reform and positioned themselves to influence the succession through Prince Edward.
Key Incidents of Factional Conflict
Catherine Howard’s Downfall (1542): The conservatives promoted her marriage to Henry, but her alleged infidelity led to her execution, weakening their influence.
Catherine Parr’s Ascendancy: A reformist sympathiser, her survival against conservative attempts to accuse her of heresy demonstrated Henry’s willingness to protect reformist allies when convenient.
The Succession Question: The conservatives opposed the rise of reformist Seymour, but the young Edward’s position as heir empowered the reformist faction by the end of Henry’s reign.
Factional struggles not only shaped policy but also determined who would dominate government after Henry’s death.
Foreign Policy and Wars in the 1540s
Henry’s Ambitions
Henry VIII sought glory through warfare, pursuing campaigns against both France and Scotland. These ventures were financially draining but central to his self-image as a warrior king.
War with France
In 1544, Henry launched an invasion of France alongside the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
Successes included the capture of Boulogne, which boosted Henry’s prestige but cost enormous sums.
Eighteenth-century engraving (after a sixteenth-century original) depicting Henry VIII’s 1544 siege of Boulogne. The panorama shows artillery positions, encampments, and the fortified town, illustrating the scale and expense of Henry’s campaign. The detailed but uncluttered composition supports analysis of strategy and material costs. Source
The war strained finances, forcing heavy taxation and debasement of the coinage, fuelling inflation.
This debased silver groat (1544) shows how Henry VIII reduced precious-metal content to fund campaigns against France and Scotland. The object foregrounds the economic mechanics behind inflation and public discontent. The page includes British Museum details (registration no. 1908,0111.29); minor curatorial notes extend beyond the syllabus but clarify context. Source
War with Scotland
The death of James V of Scotland in 1542 left infant Mary, Queen of Scots, as heir. Henry attempted to secure a marriage alliance with Prince Edward through the Treaty of Greenwich (1543).
Scottish resistance led to the so-called “Rough Wooing”, a series of destructive campaigns designed to force compliance.
Relations deteriorated, strengthening Franco-Scottish ties instead of securing England’s dominance.
Consequences of War
The wars of the 1540s had long-term consequences:
Economic Strain: Heavy taxation, forced loans, and coinage debasement weakened England’s financial stability.
Domestic Tension: The costs of war increased discontent among the population, contributing to unrest.
Limited Gains: Despite Boulogne’s capture, Henry’s aims to dominate France and Scotland were largely unfulfilled.
Debasement: The reduction in the precious metal content of coins, lowering their value and causing inflation.
The Impact of Cromwell’s Fall and the Wars
Political Impact
Without Cromwell’s centralising influence, factionalism intensified, shaping the politics of succession and religion.
Henry’s control of court politics ensured stability during his lifetime, but the factional framework destabilised governance after 1547.
Military and Financial Impact
England’s foreign policy victories were symbolic but economically unsustainable.
The wars drained resources, leaving Edward VI’s minority government to manage a kingdom weakened by debt and internal division.
FAQ
Religion was central to Cromwell’s fall. He was closely associated with advancing Protestant reforms, which alarmed conservative figures at court such as the Duke of Norfolk.
His enemies used Henry’s frustrations with the Cleves marriage to accuse Cromwell of heresy and overreaching authority in church matters.
By presenting him as a radical threatening both the King’s control and traditional religious order, conservatives secured his execution.
Boulogne’s capture in 1544 gave Henry VIII prestige but worsened relations with France.
The French saw Boulogne’s loss as a humiliation and launched repeated attempts to retake it.
Maintaining the garrison strained England’s treasury and manpower.
Negotiations for peace were prolonged and expensive, with Boulogne finally returned to France in 1550 under Edward VI.
Thus, what seemed a triumph in 1544 quickly became a diplomatic burden.
The Rough Wooing marked a low point in relations between England and Scotland.
Henry attempted to force a marriage between Edward VI and Mary, Queen of Scots, through repeated raids and military campaigns.
Instead of achieving union, the violence hardened Scottish resistance and pushed Scotland closer to France.
This entrenched the “Auld Alliance” and ensured hostility between England and Scotland well into the reign of Mary Stuart.
Factional politics shaped the fate of Henry’s later wives.
Catherine Howard, promoted by conservatives, was executed in 1542 after being accused of adultery, weakening her supporters
Catherine Parr, a reformist sympathiser, survived a conservative attempt to accuse her of heresy in 1546, aided by Henry’s intervention.
Queens became pawns in the wider struggle between conservatives and reformists, their influence reflecting the shifting balance of power at court.
Henry employed a combination of direct and indirect measures to fund costly campaigns.
Heavy parliamentary taxation.
Forced loans from the wealthy and nobility.
Sale of former monastic lands.
Debasement of the coinage, which reduced the silver content of coins, causing long-term inflation.
These measures provided short-term funding but destabilised the economy, creating difficulties for Edward VI’s minority government.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two reasons for Thomas Cromwell’s fall from power in 1540.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct reason, up to a maximum of 2.
Acceptable answers include:Failure of the Cleves marriage / marriage alliance.
Henry’s personal dislike of Anne of Cleves.
Accusations of heresy and treason.
Resentment from conservative faction at court.
His association with religious reform.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why foreign wars in the 1540s created economic problems for England.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
General statements with little explanation.
Example: “Wars cost money” or “Henry fought France and Scotland.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of specific economic problems linked to war.
Points may include: heavy taxation, forced loans, debasement of the coinage, cost of maintaining garrisons in Boulogne and Scotland.
Some limited links between war and financial strain.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, developed explanation showing understanding of causes and consequences.
Answers should make direct links between the wars and England’s economic difficulties.
Examples of acceptable development:
The cost of the French campaign in 1544 led to the capture of Boulogne, but the town was expensive to maintain.
War with Scotland required repeated campaigns (the Rough Wooing), draining resources without securing results.
Debasement of the coinage to fund the wars caused inflation, worsening the economic burden on ordinary people.
Well-supported and coherent explanation gains full marks.
