OCR Specification focus:
‘support for, and opposition to, the religious changes at a local level including unrest, attitudes to Marian policies, Catholic restoration and persecution.’
Mary I’s reign (1553–1558) marked a determined Catholic restoration after Edward VI’s Protestant reforms. Her policies aimed at reversing Protestant change, but local reactions varied dramatically.
The Aims of Catholic Restoration
Mary Tudor, a devout Catholic, sought to restore Roman Catholicism as England’s official faith. Her objectives included:
Re-establishing papal supremacy.
Reintroducing traditional Catholic doctrine and practice.
Reversing Edward VI’s Protestant legislation.
Strengthening her political legitimacy through religious unity.
High-quality portrait of Cardinal Reginald Pole, later Archbishop of Canterbury under Mary I. As papal legate he guided reconciliation with Rome and helped shape Marian religious policy. Painted earlier, it remains suitable for identifying this central figure. Source
Papal Supremacy: The authority of the Pope as the spiritual head of the Catholic Church, recognised above national or secular rulers.
Legislative Reversal of Protestant Reforms
Mary’s government introduced a series of measures to undo Edwardian reforms:
First Statute of Repeal (1553) – abolished Edward VI’s religious legislation, restoring the Church to its 1547 state under Henry VIII.
Second Statute of Repeal (1555) – reversed Henrician reforms, reinstating papal authority and reviving heresy laws.
Restoration of Catholic rites such as the Mass, use of Latin liturgy, and clerical celibacy.
This legislative framework provided the basis for enforcing Catholic orthodoxy across the realm.
Support for Catholic Restoration
Many in England retained a strong attachment to traditional religion. Factors supporting Mary’s restoration included:
Rural conservatism: In villages and market towns, attachment to familiar rituals such as saints’ days, pilgrimages, and processions was widespread.
Clergy and parish structures: Many priests quickly resumed Catholic practices, suggesting lingering continuity from before the Reformation.
Popular enthusiasm: Accounts record the joyful return of altars, crucifixes, and images in churches, as well as communal celebrations of the restored Mass.
This demonstrates that Catholicism had not been eradicated by Edwardian Protestantism but retained resilience in English society.
Opposition to Marian Religious Policies
Despite areas of support, resistance was significant and undermined uniform restoration. Sources of opposition included:
Protestant Minority Resistance
A core Protestant minority, particularly concentrated in London, East Anglia, and university towns, rejected Mary’s reforms. They:
Produced pamphlets and clandestine literature criticising Catholicism.
Went into exile abroad, forming a network of Marian exiles who sustained opposition from Geneva, Strasbourg, and Zurich.
Preached against Catholic doctrine when possible, often facing severe penalties.
Rebellion and Unrest
Religious policies fuelled discontent, notably:
Wyatt’s Rebellion (1554) – though primarily political (fear of Philip of Spain’s influence), anti-Catholic sentiment was a driving force.
Localised disturbances and refusals to comply with the restored Catholic liturgy in certain parishes.
Reluctance at Parish Level
While many clergy restored Catholic rites, others resisted. Some parishioners opposed replacing the English Prayer Book with Latin services, indicating generational shifts towards Protestantism.
Persecution and the Marian Burnings
Mary’s government reintroduced heresy laws in 1555, leading to a systematic campaign of persecution:
Around 280 Protestants were burned at the stake, including prominent figures such as Thomas Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley, and Hugh Latimer.
Contemporary woodcut from John Foxe’s Acts and Monuments portraying the burning of Ridley and Latimer in Oxford. The image emphasises the controlled public spectacle—crowds, soldiers, and a portable pulpit—that characterised Marian executions. As a Protestant source, it shaped later perceptions of the Marian persecutions. Source
Executions were often public, intended as deterrents.
London, Canterbury, and Oxford saw the largest numbers of burnings, but executions were spread across the country.
Heresy: The holding of religious beliefs that contradicted official church doctrine, often punishable by death in Tudor England.
The burnings, while demonstrating Mary’s determination, produced unintended consequences. Instead of eliminating Protestantism, they created martyrs, strengthening Protestant resolve and shaping later perceptions of her reign.
Local Reactions and Attitudes
Reactions to Catholic restoration varied significantly by region and community:
Conformity: Many accepted the changes passively, attending Mass without enthusiasm but avoiding confrontation.
Compliance by clergy: Parish priests often reinstated Catholic practices quickly, reflecting institutional obedience.
Passive resistance: Some communities failed to rebuild altars or resisted Marian injunctions quietly, signalling silent opposition.
Active dissent: The underground Protestant movement, supported by exiles abroad, sustained an alternative religious identity.
This diversity of response underscores the complexity of religious life in mid-Tudor England.
The Broader Significance
Mary’s Catholic restoration was ambitious but fragile:
While traditional Catholicism enjoyed support, it clashed with an entrenched and growing Protestant minority.
Harsh persecutions alienated moderates, turning some away from Catholicism.
The short duration of Mary’s reign limited the long-term entrenchment of Catholicism, leaving her successor, Elizabeth I, to inherit a divided religious landscape.
Mary’s reign illustrates the challenges of enforcing religious conformity in a society experiencing rapid and contested spiritual change.
FAQ
Cardinal Reginald Pole was appointed papal legate and later Archbishop of Canterbury. He formally reconciled England with Rome in 1554, absolving the realm of schism.
He promoted clerical reform by urging bishops to improve preaching and restore seminaries. However, his conciliatory approach sometimes clashed with Mary’s harsher reliance on persecution, limiting his overall impact.
Responses varied. Some parishes enthusiastically rebuilt altars and reinstated processions, reflecting deep attachment to traditional religion.
Others complied reluctantly, treating ritual attendance as a civic duty rather than spiritual devotion. Generational differences mattered—older parishioners often welcomed the familiar rites, while younger ones, shaped by Edwardian reforms, were less engaged.
Protestants who fled to continental cities like Geneva and Strasbourg established printing presses. They produced anti-Catholic pamphlets that were smuggled back into England.
These exiles created a vocal intellectual opposition, preserving Protestant networks abroad. Their writings helped sustain resistance at home and later influenced Elizabethan Protestantism.
Although intended as deterrents, the burnings often drew sympathy for victims. Crowds witnessed executions and sometimes responded with unease or horror.
Foxe’s later Book of Martyrs amplified these impressions, but even contemporaries questioned the effectiveness of such harsh methods. The policy risked alienating moderate Catholics who disliked brutality.
London and Oxford: Centres of execution, drawing large audiences but also becoming hubs of Protestant resistance.
Eastern counties (e.g., Norfolk, Suffolk): Protestant minorities were stronger, so burnings there reinforced defiance rather than submission.
Rural shires: Less outspoken opposition; communities were more likely to conform quietly, though enthusiasm for Catholicism varied.
Regional diversity highlights why Mary struggled to impose a uniform religious settlement.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two prominent Protestant figures who were executed during Mary I’s reign.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified figure (up to 2 marks).
Accept: Thomas Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley, Hugh Latimer, John Rogers.
Do not accept generic terms such as “Protestants” or “clergymen.”
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two ways in which people in England reacted at a local level to Mary I’s attempt at Catholic restoration.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements about support or opposition, with little detail.
Example: “Some people supported Mary’s changes. Others opposed them.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of at least one reaction, possibly both, with some specific examples or detail.
Example: “Many parish priests quickly reinstated Catholic rituals such as the Mass, showing support. Some Protestants refused to attend services, showing resistance.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation of two distinct reactions, with accurate examples and clear link to Mary’s policies.
Example: “Rural communities often welcomed the restoration of Catholic practices, celebrating the return of traditional rituals such as processions. In contrast, Protestant strongholds like London and East Anglia showed resistance through underground preaching and refusal to conform, with some leaving as Marian exiles.”
