OCR Specification focus:
‘Royalist and Parliamentarian strengths and weaknesses; the course and outcome of the First Civil War; formation of the New Model Army.’
The First English Civil War (1642–1646) was a decisive turning point in Stuart Britain, defined by contrasting strengths, weaknesses, and the revolutionary creation of the New Model Army.
Royalist Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Leadership of Charles I: As an anointed monarch, Charles commanded natural legitimacy among many subjects, especially in rural and conservative regions.
Support base: The Royalists, or Cavaliers, drew strong support from the nobility, gentry, and many in the north and west of England, as well as parts of Wales and Cornwall.
Experienced commanders: Figures such as Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Charles’s nephew, brought valuable military expertise, particularly in cavalry tactics.
Financial resources from landowners: Royalist sympathisers often contributed funds, supplies, and manpower, reinforcing Charles’s cause.
Weaknesses
Financial insecurity: Unlike Parliament, Charles lacked consistent taxation powers and relied on contributions, plunder, and loans, which proved inadequate.
Geographical disadvantage: Royalist strongholds were scattered, and London — the economic and strategic hub — was under Parliament’s control.
Indiscipline: Royalist armies often suffered from poor discipline, with looting and alienation of local populations undermining their legitimacy.
Limited navy: Parliament controlled the navy, restricting Charles’s ability to secure imports of men and supplies from abroad.
Parliamentarian Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Control of London: London’s wealth, population, and print culture gave Parliament a major logistical and propaganda advantage.
Navy dominance: Parliamentary control of the navy ensured secure trade routes, revenue, and protection against foreign aid reaching Charles.
Broader support: Backing from merchants, artisans, Puritans, and much of the south and east created a strong and resourceful constituency.
Organisational ability: Parliament could raise money through effective taxation and ordinances, ensuring more consistent funding than the King.
Weaknesses
Divisions within Parliament: Factions such as Presbyterians and Independents disagreed over religion, war aims, and relations with Charles.
Inexperienced commanders: Early leadership lacked cohesion, and rivalries undermined effectiveness before reforms took effect.
Reluctance of some localities: Not all regions were committed, with some areas reluctant to endure sustained taxation or troop quartering.
The Course of the First Civil War
Outbreak and Early Battles
1642 – Edgehill: The first major battle was indecisive, symbolising the initial balance between both sides.
Royalists gained strength in the Midlands and West, while Parliament retained London and the Southeast.
Mid-War Developments
1643: Royalists advanced in the north and west, but Parliament held firm.
1644 – Marston Moor: A turning point, where Parliament allied with the Scots under the Solemn League and Covenant, defeating the Royalists in the largest battle of the war.
A battle plan of Marston Moor (2 July 1644) indicating Royalist dispositions under Prince Rupert and the combined Parliamentarian–Covenanter lines. The map neatly labels sectors, nearby villages (Long Marston, Tockwith) and the River Nidd, helping students connect alliance politics to battlefield outcomes. Minor topographic details are included beyond the specification but remain directly instructional. Source
Stalemate and Reform
By 1644, both sides faced exhaustion. Parliamentary divisions weakened its leadership until structural reforms changed the tide.
The New Model Army
Creation
The Self-Denying Ordinance (1645) required MPs and Lords to resign military commands, paving the way for a professionalised army. The New Model Army was formally established under Sir Thomas Fairfax as commander and Oliver Cromwell as cavalry leader.
New Model Army: A centralised, professional, merit-based military force created in 1645 by Parliament to replace regionally organised militias and end reliance on aristocratic generals.
Characteristics
Professional discipline: Soldiers received regular pay, uniforms, and centralised training.
Meritocracy: Promotion based on ability rather than social rank.
Religious zeal: Many soldiers were Puritans, instilling strong ideological motivation and cohesion.
Cavalry innovations: Cromwell’s Ironsides cavalry became renowned for discipline and shock tactics.
William Barns Wollen’s ‘News’: Horsemen of the New Model Army, 1645 (c.) portrays mounted harquebusiers in typical kit — buff coats, lobster-tailed pot helmets, breast/back plates and holstered pistols. Although an artwork rather than a diagram, it accurately reflects cavalry arms and attire discussed in A-Level study. Background scenery is artistic and not required by the specification. Source
Impact
The New Model Army transformed the war:
It enabled sustained campaigns rather than local skirmishes.
It shifted the advantage decisively towards Parliament by ensuring military superiority.
Its ideological unity later gave it political weight, influencing post-war events.
The Outcome of the First Civil War
Decisive Victories
1645 – Battle of Naseby: The New Model Army crushed the Royalist main force, capturing artillery, supplies, and revealing Charles’s secret correspondence — evidence he sought foreign and Irish Catholic aid, undermining his credibility.
Colour-coded battle plan of Naseby (14 June 1645) showing Parliamentarian and Royalist deployments and movements across Broad Moor near the village of Naseby. Labels identify key commanders (Cromwell, Skippon, Ireton) and terrain features that shaped the engagement. The map includes period place-names; these go slightly beyond the OCR requirement but aid spatial understanding. Source
1646 – Fall of Oxford: Charles’s capital surrendered, effectively ending the war.
Consequences
Charles surrendered to the Scots in May 1646, believing he could exploit divisions between Parliament and its allies.
Royalist power was broken, though not eradicated, setting the stage for renewed conflict.
Parliament emerged militarily dominant, but unresolved tensions between moderates, radicals, and the King prevented a stable settlement.
The First Civil War thus revealed the critical importance of resources, discipline, and ideological conviction, with the New Model Army as the decisive factor in Parliament’s victory.
FAQ
Propaganda was central to Parliament’s war effort. Control of London’s printing presses allowed them to distribute pamphlets and news sheets to justify their cause.
Royalists also produced material, often focusing on loyalty to the King, but lacked the same infrastructure. Parliament’s stronger propaganda machine helped sustain morale, win recruits, and undermine Charles’s credibility, especially after Naseby when his secret letters were published.
The Scots entered the conflict in 1643 through the Solemn League and Covenant, allying with Parliament in return for promises of Presbyterian reform.
Their troops were crucial at the Battle of Marston Moor (1644), which shifted control of the north away from the Royalists. Without Scottish military support, Parliament’s chances of securing such a decisive victory would have been far weaker.
Previous local militias often broke ranks, looted, or deserted when unpaid. This undermined their effectiveness and alienated communities.
The New Model Army, by contrast:
Paid its soldiers regularly
Imposed strict codes of conduct
Promoted officers by merit
This ensured loyalty, improved civilian relations, and gave Parliament an army capable of sustained campaigns rather than unreliable, short-term efforts.
Royalist strategy often lacked cohesion. Charles I and his commanders disagreed on priorities, such as whether to march on London or secure the north.
Prince Rupert favoured bold offensives, while others pressed for defensive consolidation. This disunity led to inconsistent campaigns, wasted opportunities, and poor coordination. Strategic indecision combined with Parliament’s growing organisation widened the gap by the mid-1640s.
When Parliament seized the King’s letters in 1645, they revealed he sought foreign Catholic and Irish assistance.
This had two major effects:
It undermined trust in Charles, even among moderates who had hoped for negotiation.
It allowed Parliament to rally support by portraying Charles as a ruler willing to betray Protestant England.
The discovery shifted political opinion firmly against reconciliation and made outright military victory more acceptable to many.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two strengths of the Parliamentarian side during the First Civil War (1642–1646).
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid strength identified, up to 2 marks.
Possible answers include:Control of London (1 mark)
Dominance of the navy (1 mark)
Ability to raise money through taxation (1 mark)
Broad support from merchants, Puritans, and artisans (1 mark)
Better organisational capacity (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the creation of the New Model Army contributed to the outcome of the First Civil War.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements with limited explanation, e.g. “The New Model Army was better disciplined.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Developed explanation with some supporting detail, e.g. “The New Model Army was more disciplined and paid regularly, which made it more effective than the Royalist forces.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Detailed explanation with clear focus on contribution to outcome and specific evidence, e.g. “The New Model Army transformed Parliament’s war effort by professionalising its forces, ensuring discipline, and promoting men on merit rather than social rank. Cromwell’s Ironsides cavalry proved decisive at battles such as Naseby (1645), where the capture of Charles’s correspondence destroyed his credibility. These factors shifted the balance of power and directly led to Royalist defeat.”
